History and Government Notes

• History originated with early Greek scholars like Herodotus and Thucydides who documented past human activities.
• The term "History" comes from the Greek word "Historia," meaning "to enquire, to search or to ask for the truth" and then report the findings.
• History is defined as "the study or account or story of man's true events of the past out of his interaction with his environment".
• Everyday news concerning mankind becomes history in the next hour.
• Historians select and arrange important events chronologically, noting if they occurred Before Christ (BC) or Anno Domini (AD, "the year of our Lord").
• Pre-history refers to all known un-recorded history.

• Social history: focuses on cultural practices, traditions, social institutions (tribe, clan, age-set, families), religious beliefs, and rites of passage.
• Political history: covers wars, leadership, systems of government, and dispute resolution.
• Economic history: deals with activities like cultivation, pastoralism, mining, trade, hunting, and industry.

• Must contain elements of truth from first or second-hand information.
• Mainly focus on past happenings.
• Must concern man, meaning they are connected to human activity.
• Can exist in written or oral form.
• Require evidence to be considered true.

Government means the exercise of authority over a political or social unit, or the practice of ruling and exercising continuous authority over subjects.

• Any government must have: laws/rules, specific individuals to enforce them, specified ways to deal with non-adherence, and a specified area of jurisdiction.

Recorded information from books, newspapers, journals, magazines, oral tradition, interviews, and observations.

Advantages:

• Easily used by literate people.
• More accurate and reliable.
• Cheaper than archaeology or linguistics.
• Store information permanently.
• Easily translated.

Limitations:

• Information may be inaccurate/distorted/exaggerated.
• Not always readily available (e.g., in distant archives).
• Useful mainly to literate people.
• May contain inadequate information or biases.
• Foreign languages require experts (expensive).
• Easily misunderstood/misinterpreted.
• Time-consuming to review.
• Expensive to acquire (books, newspapers).

The study of man's past material remains, including weapons, tools, settlements, pottery, skulls, bones, plant remains, and cave paintings.

• Archaeologists examine excavated remains or identify sites through erosion exposure, visible remains, or oral traditions (e.g., Great Zimbabwe, Merowe ruins).
• Forms of remains: Man-made items (weapons, tools, pots, ornaments), unmovable structures (dwellings, wells, tombs, towns), natural items (bone remains, horns, carbonized seeds).

Limitations:

• Expensive, time-consuming (locating sites).
• Weather can affect fossils (decay, change form).
• Difficult to locate sites.
• Information can be inaccurate.
• Cannot be used for recent events (only ancient periods).
• Difficult to date fossils/artefacts (estimation involved).

Study of the past revealed by word-of-mouth transmission across generations.

• Elders and court workers were custodians of history in traditional African societies.
• Historians use myths, legends, songs, proverbs, poems, and lists of rulers.

Limitations:

• Information may be exaggerated/inaccurate/distorted.
• Informants may conceal vital information.
• Expensive, time-consuming and laborious.
• Information may be omitted/forgotten due to memory loss.
• Tends to focus on successes rather than failures.

Scientific study and analysis of languages to understand cultures and relationships between language groups.

• Helps trace origin, migration, settlement, classification, grouping, past relations, and common social/political/economic aspects of East African communities.

Limitations:

• Limited to cultures, origins, migrations (not all information).
• May lead to inaccurate information.
• Expensive for distant communities.
• Difficult to estimate actual event times.
• Requires highly skilled manpower.
• Learning languages is time-consuming/laborious.

• Study of existing social institutions and relationships; anthropologists interact with people to experience their way of life.
• Obtains information from cultures, cultural values, forms of government, religious organizations/beliefs, marriage systems, family relations, inheritance, and material life (farming, livestock, fishing, industry).
• Collects and analyzes data to draw conclusions.

Limitations:

• Expensive, time-consuming and tedious.
• May yield inaccurate information if not used properly.
• Requires well-trained personnel.
• Limited to social and material aspects of history.
• Not wholly reliable on its own.

• Study of how characteristics are transmitted from parents to offspring.
• Helps study the history of animal/plant domestication and how new varieties emerged.
• Mainly scientific, expensive, requires well-trained individuals (e.g., botanists), not for all aspects of human activities, difficult to obtain very accurate information.

Conclusion on sources: Written sources are generally considered the most reliable and accurate.

Why study History:

• Develop a sense of belonging and national pride.
• Understand and appreciate past ways of life, helping predict future events.
• Acquire critical thinking and reasoning capacity.
• Foster empathy and understanding of others' thoughts, feelings, roles.
• Understand the need for government and appreciate other cultures, recognizing human interdependence.
• Attain careers (administration, teaching, business) and acquire knowledge by fostering interest in reading and new information.
• Prepare for life and future challenges.

Why study Government:

• Understand and appreciate its system and how it works.
• Become aware of rights and responsibilities.
• Understand duties of leaders and subjects, and historical administration of societies.
• Understand law-making and enforcement processes.
• Understand national budgets, revenue, and expenditure.
• Understand roles of Judiciary, Legislature, and Executive.
• Admire and appreciate careers like administration, judges, and lawyers.

• Creation theory: Originates from the Bible (Genesis) and Koran, stating God/Allah created man (Adam and Eve).
• Evolution theory: Formulated by Charles Darwin in 1859 in "The Origin of Species"; states man developed from ape-like ancestors through gradual change over thousands of years.
• Traditional (Mythical) theory: Every traditional community has an explanation of its origin, passed down through generations (e.g., Kikuyu myth of Ngai creating Gikuyu and Mumbi).

• Evolution is a process of gradual change.
• Early man originated and lived in Africa, later spreading to Europe, Asia, and America.
• East Africa is rich in archaeological sites: Rusinga Island, Njoro river cave, Olorgesaille, Fort Ternan (Kenya); Kondora Irangi, Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania).

Stages of evolution:

• Dryopithecus Africanus (Proconsul): Found by Mary Louis Leaky on Rusinga Island, existed 20-25 million years ago in East African forests.
  • Features: Resembled apes more than man, walked on all fours, long teeth, ate flesh and fruits, used limbs as arms, hunted and gathered.
• Ramapithecus (Kenyapithecus): Excavated by Dr. Leakey at Fort Ternan near Kericho, existed 12-15 million years ago in East African grasslands.
  • Features: Massive jaws, grinding teeth, resembled apes more than man, smaller canines than apes.
• Australopithecus (Zinjanthropus): First found in South Africa, later at Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania), closer to modern man, lived 2-7 million years ago in Africa.
  • Features: Grinding teeth, hairy bodies, short, low forehead, deep-set eyes, small brain capacity (one-third of modern man), walked upright, relied on fingers for food, ate flesh and fruits, made and used simple stone tools for defense, hunted and gathered. Species include Australopithecus Afarensis, Africanus, Robustus, Boisei.
• Homo Habilis ("handy man," "man with ability," "practical man"): Skull found at Olduvai Gorge and Kobi Fora, lived about 1.5 million years ago in Africa.
  • Features: Used hands to grasp, large brain (680cc), made tools from stones/sticks, controlled hands with brain, hunted and gathered, resembled man more than apes (true ancestor).
• Homo Erectus ("upright man"): Remains found in Ethiopia, existed during Middle Stone Age.
  • Features: Upright walking posture, more intelligent, higher brain capacity (1000cc), made stone/bone weapons (Acheulian tools using Levallois technique), learnt to make fire, developed speech, painted cave dwellings, hunted and gathered.
• Rhodesian man: Skull found in Zambia, closer to modern man than Homo Erectus.
  • Features: Walked with long strides, made stone tools, well-developed brain (almost modern size), walked on two legs with upright posture (though sloping forehead), hunted and gathered.
• Neanderthal man: Fossils found in Germany and Europe, closer to modern man than Rhodesian man.
  • Features: Hunted and gathered, made stone tools/weapons, walked upright, heavily built, high brain capacity (sometimes larger than modern man), fed on meat.
• Cro-Magnon: Fossils found in Western Europe, taller than modern man, existed 10,000-50,000 years ago during Middle Stone Age.
  • Features: Made delicate microlithic tools, hunted and gathered, lived in caves, used fire for warmth/roasting meat/cooking, painted cave walls, thicker eyebrow range than modern man, improved tools.
• Homo Sapiens ("thinking man," "intelligent man"): Existed during New Stone Age.
  • Features: Used advanced Acheulian tools and other tools (daggers, side scrapers, chisels), developed microlith industry, tamed/kept livestock, cultivated, buried dead, settled in villages, began fishing (bone harpoons), developed government/religion, started simple industries (beads, pottery, basketry, painting), made better clothes from skins (bone needles), built huts of thatch/mud.

• Archaeologists use early man's tools (Acheulian, Microliths), garment remains, weapons, beads, shelters, grains/food remains, cave paintings/art, and traces of fire (charcoal, carbonized seeds) to draw conclusions.

• Made from various materials, sharper than earlier tools (arrow-heads, axes, spear-heads).
• Used for digging roots, skinning animals, killing animals, grinding/pounding vegetables, scraping animal skins, breaking animal bones.

• Carbon 14 tests: Determines Carbon 14 content; less Carbon 14 means older remains.
• Potassium-Argon test: Dates volcanic ash and fossils in volcanic rocks; used for artefacts 300,000+ years old.
• Paleomagnetic dating method: Dates fossils up to 10,000 years old.
• Stratigraphy: Dates fossils found between layers of sedimentary rocks.

Notable archaeologists using these methods in E. Africa: Dr. Leakey, Dr. Freeman, Dr. Posnansky, Mr. Chittick, Mr. Kirkman.

• For defense against wild animals.
• For hunting and gathering (animals, fruits).
• For cultivating (New Stone Age domestication).
• For exchanging with other items.
• Due to curiosity.

Materials used: Stone, Bone, Horn, Flint, Wood, sticks.

Tool making, weapon making, cloth making, pottery, weaving, basketry.

Industries: Oldowan (choppers, flakes), Lupemban, Acheulian (hand-axes, spear-heads, arrow-heads, cleavers, knives, daggers, scrapers), Still Bay, Mousterian, Microliths.

a) The Old Stone Age (Early/Lower Palaeolithic):

• Lived in small groups, slept on trees/caves (fear of animals), walked naked (hairy body).
• Ate raw meat, birds, eggs, insects.
• Made simple stone tools (hand axes, flakes) using Levallois technique.
• Hunted wild animals, gathered fruits and roots.

b) The Middle Stone Age (Middle Palaeolithic):

• Lived in caves.
• Discovered fire: Lit it at cave entrances to scare animals.
  • Uses of fire: Warmth, cooking/softening food (removing poison), lighting caves, scaring wild animals, hardening tool tips (spears, arrows), assisting hunting (burning bushes), clearing bushes, hardening clay pots, clearing bushes for cultivation (Homo Sapiens), improving food flavor/nutrition.
• Began making/wearing clothes from skins.
• Cooked food and roasted meat/roots.
• Started trapping animals using pits, painting pictures of hunted animals on cave walls.
• Language developed.
• Improved tools: Smaller, lighter, sharper, thinner, more convenient.

c) The New Stone Age (Late/Upper Palaeolithic):

• Made better microlith tools (blades, arrow-heads) and composite tools (fish harpoons, bone needles).
• Established permanent settlements, led a settled life.
• Decorated body with red ochre, beads, eggshell bangles.
• Began simple industries: weaving, pottery, basketry, spinning.
• Developed religion and performed rites/ceremonies to influence natural forces (drought, death, earthquakes, rain).
• Developed governmental institutions, leading to early governments.
• Began fishing using harpoons.
• Made better shelters (houses of mud and thatch).
• Domesticated animals (cats, dogs, sheep, cows, goats, chicken).
• Began cultivating (start of farming).

• Increase in brain capacity.
• Development of upright posture.
• Walking on two legs instead of all fours.
• Holding objects with front limbs (hands).
• Continuous improvement of tools and weapons.
• Discovery of fire.
• Learning to domesticate animals and plants (beginning of agriculture).
• Improved shelter.
• Establishment of religion.
• Formation of government.
• Starting simple industries (weaving, pottery, basketry).
• Beginning to weave clothes from skins.

These changes led to the evolution of modern man capable of many inventions.

• Developed when man domesticated animals (sheep, cows, goats) and grew crops (wheat, barley, figs, vegetables).
• Initially, man was a hunter-gatherer.
• Accidentally discovered domestication of animals and plants for reliable food supply, even in unfavorable weather.
• Led to permanent settlements, and the observation that fallen grains germinated, leading to planting near homesteads.
• Developed in Mesopotamia, China, Ethiopia, Egypt, India, Sudan, Palestine, Thailand, Peru, Iran, Mexico, Turkey, Israel.
• Before domestication, food included edible roots, wild meat, bird eggs, honey, vegetables, wild fruits, nuts.
• Domesticated animals provided meat, milk, skins for clothing, and comfort.

• Need for reliable food supply.
• Invention of agricultural tools for cultivating larger plots.
• Rapid population increase demanded more food.
• Beginning of settled life allowed man to stay until crops matured, leading to surplus food and trade.
• Realization that friendly animals could be tamed and plants grown near homes.
• Development of specialization in other economic activities (hoes, pots, knives) boosting agricultural production.

• Adequate food, leading to increased human population.
• Specialization in other activities like weaving, pottery, cloth making.
• Establishment of permanent settlements.
• Urbanization.
• Development of socio-political institutions and eventually governments.
• Production of surplus food led to trade development.
• Development of religious beliefs and performance of rites (e.g., to influence drought, floods).

Favored factors:

• Presence of indigenous crops (wheat, barley) grown along the Nile valley.
• Fertile soils (silt) deposited by Nile floods.
• Invention of writing (Hieroglyphics) for farm records.
• Introduction of irrigation using the Nile (basin and shadoof methods).
• Invention of the calendar for marking seasons and Nile floods.
• Introduction of the ox-drawn wooden plough for more land cultivation.
• Political stability protected by deserts and the Mediterranean Sea.

Economic impact:

• Increased food production.
• Increased trade.
• Division of labor.
• Specialization.
• Emergence of small-scale industries (weaving, basketry, pottery).
• Improved cultivation methods (irrigation, plough use).
• Urbanization.
• Emergence of a class of wealthy people.
• More land cultivated.

• Began along river valleys (Tigris and Euphrates) because rivers provided reliable water for irrigation and rich soils (silt).
• Rivers also provided transport.
• Settlements formed along river valleys in desert zones.

Favored factors:

• Invention of the plough.
• Introduction of irrigation.
• Fertile soils (silt).
• Establishment of permanent settlements.
• Invention of writing for farm records.

Impact:

• Specialization in other activities (pottery, weaving).
• Division of labor (cultivators, livestock keepers).
• Introduction of better farming tools and increased food production.
• Emergence of wealthy class.
• Emergence of urban centers along Euphrates and Tigris valleys.
• Improved cultivation methods (plough use).
• Increased trade.
• Development of cottage industries.
• Increased population due to more food.

• Domesticated crops: Wheat, barley (first), figs, olives, vegetables, vines.
• Invention of ox-drawn plough for large areas; seed drill for easy planting.

• Definition: Change in methods of cultivation and livestock rearing, mainly by invention and use of machines.
• Speeded by farm inputs (fertilizers, pesticides, curatives).
• Reduced manual labor but increased food production.

Agricultural practices before:

• Shifting cultivation (land exhausted then abandoned).
• Small scale farming (little harvest).
• Subsistence farming (for consumption, not sale).
• Broadcasting (scattering) of seeds.
• Strip system/open field system (farmland split into small plots, hindered full utilization, wasted land with roads/footpaths, time wasted travelling, machines not usable on small strips).
• Inter cropping.
• Use of simple implements (hoes, digging sticks).
• Livestock rearing discouraged by disease and winter feed shortages.

Factors leading to Agrarian Revolution:

• Increased human population and high food demand.
• Development of new farming tools and machinery (threshing machines, seed drill).
• Industrial Revolution (provided inputs and markets).
• Replacement of open field system by enclosure system (enabled property improvement).
• Development of new livestock breeding methods (increased output).
• Agricultural research (improved soils, crop yields).
• Development of scientific food preservation (canning, refrigeration).
• Land consolidation (increased farm sizes, encouraged machine use).

Agricultural changes:

• Land consolidated and fenced.
• New farming methods: crop rotation, cross-breeding, use of machines, fertilizers, pesticides.
• New crops (potatoes).
• Variety of farm tools invented (seed-drills, ploughs, threshing machines).
• Fallow system discouraged.
• Poor sold land to the rich, becoming landless.

Effects of Agrarian Revolution:

• Increased food production leading to rapid population increase.
• Expansion of local and international trade (agricultural surpluses).
• Food security.
• Diversification of agriculture (new crops like potatoes, citrus fruits).
• Agricultural research led to exotic livestock breeds (Friesian) and better methods.
• Improved living standards and life expectancy.
• Increased land prices.
• Improved transport and communication.
• Emigration of Britons abroad (e.g., USA, South Africa).
• Provided raw materials and labor for new industries.
• Poor displaced, leading to rural-urban migration and urban expansion.
• Establishment of large-scale farming replaced subsistence farming.
• Rise of social classes: rich landlords vs. poor landless.

• British citizens displaced by enclosure system migrated to USA, introducing new farming methods, crops, and animal breeds.
• Used slave labor on cotton, tobacco, maize plantations.

Factors facilitating development (before 1800):

• Suitable climate for cotton, tobacco, wheat, maize, and livestock.
• European immigration led to population increase and high food demand.
• Enterprising Europeans settled and farmed.
• Availability of indigenous crops (yams, beans).
• Rivers (Colorado, Sacramento, Arkansas) provided irrigation water.
• European emigrants introduced new farming methods (crop rotation, fertilizers, inter-breeding).
• Introduction of new crops.
• Suitable soils for different crops.
• Availability of slave labor.

• Agricultural practices of Red Indians (indigenous inhabitants) before Revolution: Shifting cultivation, small scale farming, broadcasting seeds, simple implements, inter-cropping.
• British immigrants introduced plantation farming (large-scale).

Factors leading to Agrarian Revolution in USA:

• British enclosure system forced migration to USA, leading to legalized private land ownership.
• Introduction of slave labor ensured adequate supply.
• Abundant farming land (wheat, tobacco, cotton); wasteland reclaimed.
• Increased demand for agricultural raw materials by European industries (e.g., cotton for British textile industries).
• USA government recognized individual land ownership and supported farmers with aid for large-scale farming.
• Suitable land for diverse crops.
• Invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney (1793), increasing cotton production by separating seeds from fiber.
• Improved transport and communication for timely market access.
• Mechanization of agriculture (e.g., John Deere's steel plough) encouraged big plantations.
• Agricultural research introduced new varieties of livestock and crops.
• New food preservation methods (canning, refrigeration) encouraged increased yields.
• Population increase created demand for food, expanding agriculture for internal and external markets.
• Introduction of new methods for controlling animal/plant diseases.
• Division of USA into farming zones (corn belt, cotton belt, wheat belt, livestock zones).

Effects of Agrarian Revolution in USA:

• Increased food production and population.
• Promoted export trade.
• Accelerated trans-Atlantic slave trade for plantation labor.
• Contributed to growth of European industries (raw materials).
• New/better farming methods introduced (crop rotation, fertilizers, row planting).
• Improved transport and communication (roads, railways, water transport).
• Improved seeds and livestock breeds.
• Improved standard of living.
• Encouraged scientific research.
• Opened up many parts of USA for farming and settlement.
• Rural-urban migration and urban expansion.
• Increased food production and diversification.
• Encouraged scientific inventions (steel plough, refrigeration).
• Encouraged European settlement in USA due to land scarcity in Europe.

• Third World: Developing countries in Africa, South America, and Asia, mostly former colonial states, not as industrialized as developed countries.
• Majority suffer from acute food shortages.

Reasons for acute food shortage:

• Unreliable climatic conditions: Too much/too little rain, floods (India), drought (African countries near Sahara).
• Rapid population growth: Outstrips agricultural production.
• Emphasis on cash crops: Ignoring subsistence crops and drought-resistant crops (cassava, arrow roots, yams, sweet potatoes).
• Inadequate transport/communication: Hinders marketing and food distribution.
• Political instability: Civil strife hinders agriculture (Uganda, Sudan, Somalia, DRC).
• Poor/shortage of storage facilities: Food wastage (weevils, rats).
• Importation of food/dependence on foreign aid: Hinders improvement of agricultural output.
• Scarcity of capital: Difficult to mechanize agriculture, purchase inputs (fertilizers, chemicals).
• Poor farming methods: Inter-cropping, not applying fertilizers, leading to low output.
• Natural calamities: Locust/army worm invasion, hailstones, wild animals.
• Land tenure system: Few land owners not fully utilizing land.
• High rate of poverty: People cannot buy food even if available.
• Negative attitudes towards certain foodstuffs.
• Poor economic planning and marketing policies.
• Hoarding and smuggling.
• Diseases and pests affecting crops and livestock.
• Acute shortage of labor due to rural-urban migration.
• HIV/AIDS: Causes death and weakens productive people.

Ways countries solve food problems:

• Improve soil fertility (crop-rotation, cross-breeding, chemical fertilizers).
• Establish research stations.
• Establish large/small-scale irrigation schemes.
• Reclaim idle land, drain swamps for crop growing.
• Encourage diversified agriculture (replace monoculture).
• Provide financial assistance (loans) to farmers.
• Improve marketing facilities, motivate farmers by raising food crop prices.
• Introduce chemicals to control pests/diseases through research.
• Encourage land consolidation for individual tenure.
• Encourage growing drought-resistant crops (yams, sweet potatoes, onions, cassava).
• Provide extension services to farmers.
• Encourage political stability for agricultural investment and yield increase.
• Improve transport and communication (rural access roads).

Impact of acute food shortages:

• Increased death rate in famine-stricken areas.
• Increased dependency on imported food.
• Sharp rise in food prices.
• Blaming government, leading to civil unrest and political instability.
• People wander for food, leading to social interactions.
• High dependency on foreign aid/grants.
• Migration from drought/famine areas to towns.
• Rapid outbreaks of deficiency diseases.
• Increased crime (robbery, prostitution).
• Hatred between rich and poor.
• Malnutrition retards child growth and causes high child mortality.

• Classified into three linguistic groups: Bantu, Nilotes, and Cushites.
• They migrated into Kenya and interacted with the earliest inhabitants, the Khoisan stock.

• Definition: People speaking related languages, originated from Zaire (Congo). Migrated slowly eastwards to Kenya.

Categories:

• Eastern Kenya Bantu: Akamba, Kikuyu, Ameru, Embu, Taita, Giriama, Kombe, Chonyi, Digo, Rabai, Jibana, Pokomo, Duruma, Kauma, Ribe.
  • Reached Mt. Kilimanjaro from Congo forest, then Taita hills, dispersed.
  • Those at Shungwaya forced to migrate to interior (along Tana River) by Oromo; Mijikenda remained at Coast.
• Western Kenya Bantu: Abagusii, Abaluhyia, Abakuria, Abasuba, Abakhene.
  • Settled in western Kenya; some (Abagusii) entered from Uganda.

Causes of migration:

• Overpopulation, civil/internal wars, external attacks, adventure, need for better pastures, drought/famine, need for cultivable land, disease outbreaks/epidemics, knowledge of iron smelting and superior iron weapons.

Effects of migration:

• Assimilation of other communities (Southern Cushites by Bantu; Kikuyu assimilated Athi, Dorobo, Gumba).
• Intermarriages (Kikuyu with Kamba, Maasai).
• Development of new political institutions (e.g., 'Muthamaki' among Kikuyu).
• Borrowing of cultural practices (Kikuyu borrowed circumcision and age-set system from Gumba/Athi).
• Accelerated wars, displacement of conquered communities.
• Interaction through trade, raids, marriages.
• Enrichment of language through word borrowing.
• Some Bantu changed economic life (e.g., cultivators to pastoralists).

• Migrated from Sudan, passed through Uganda, into Kenya.

Categories:

• River-Lake Nilotes: Luo (shores of Lake Victoria), migrated from south-eastern Sudan (Bahrar-el-Ghazal) into Uganda, then Kenya.
• Plain Nilotes: Samburu, Maasai, Karamojong, Teso, Turkana; entered Kenya from Southern Ethiopia along Lake Turkana.
• Highland Nilotes: Nandi, Keiyo, Tugen, Marakwet, Kipsigis; migrated from North-West of Lake Turkana in Ethiopia.

Reasons for migration from Sudan into Kenya:

• Epidemics (people/animals), drought/famine, internal/civil wars, external attacks, love for adventure, need for pastures, overpopulation, need for cultivable land, family/clan quarrels.

Effects of migration:

• Assimilation of communities.
• Change in economic activities (e.g., Luo became fishermen).
• Intermarriages (with Abagusii, Abaluhyia).
• Interaction with communities.
• Conquest and displacement of some communities.
• Increased wars.
• Borrowing of cultural practices.
• Development of new political institutions (e.g., 'Oloiboni' by Maasai, 'Orkoyiot' by Nandi).
• Enrichment of language through word borrowing.

• Entered Kenya from the North Eastern direction, from the Horn of Africa (original homeland).

Categories:

• Eastern Cushites: Oromo, Somali, Rendile, Gabbra, Shangilla, Burji.
• Southern Cushites: Migrated from Ethiopian Highlands, settled between Kenya and Northern Tanzania (Sanye, Dahallo, Boni living at River Tana mouth).

Reasons for migration:

• Need for pastures, search for fertile land, adventure, disease outbreaks, external attacks, internal wars/clan feuds, overpopulation, natural calamities (drought/famine).

Effects of migration:

• Contact with other communities, leading to cultural exchange.
• Language enrichment.
• Assimilated weaker communities.
• Population increase in better lands.
• Expansion of trade.
• Interaction through trade, intermarriage, and wars.
• Increased wars as Cushites sought pastures.
• Conquered and displaced communities (e.g., Oromo dispersed Bantu at Shungwaya).

Social:

• Organized into nine clans (e.g., Anjiru, Ambui, Acera). Family was central unit, "mbari" (sub-clan) under "Muramati".
• Acquired age-set system from Gumba. Practiced birth/marriage ceremonies.
• Men cleared land, cared for livestock; women cultivated.
• Initiated (circumcised) boys and girls.
• Worshipped God "Ngai" on Mt. Kenya, offered sacrifices (goats/sheep).
• Had medicinemen ("Mundu Mugo"), rainmakers, prophets. Believed in ancestral spirits, paid dowry.

Economic:

• Grew crops (millet, sorghum, arrow roots, yams).
• Traded with Maasai, Akamba.
• Smelted iron (hoes, axes), practiced weaving, basketry, pottery.
• Hunted and gathered, kept beehives (honey).
• Kept livestock (cattle, sheep, goats).

Political:

• Organized into clans/sub-clans ("Mbari"). Decentralized.
• Age-set system. "Muramati" (clan leader) coordinated activities.
• Warriors defended community.
• Council of elders (KIAMA) maintained law/order, made decisions, presided over religious functions, judged cases.

Social:

• Comprised Chuka, Tharaka, Mwimbi, Muthambi, Imenti, Tigania, Igembe.
• Organized into clans, family important. Age-set systems (Nthuke/Irua).
• Initiation ceremonies (circumcision for boys/girls).
• Worshipped God under sacred Fig (Mugumo) trees, performed sacrifices.
• Had medicinemen, rainmakers, fortune-tellers, prophets.
• Ruled by council of elders who also presided over religious ceremonies.

Economic:

• Grew crops (millet, sorghum).
• Kept livestock (cattle, sheep, goats).
• Hunted wild animals, gathered roots/fruits.
• Traded with Akamba, Mbere, Embu.
• Engaged in traditional industries (pottery, basketry, weaving, cloth making, iron smelting for knives, spears, arrow heads, hoes).
• Kept beehives (honey).

Political:

• Ruled by councils of elders called "Njuri Nceke".
• Organized into clans of related families. Age-set systems.
• Warriors (strong circumcised men) defended community.
• Decentralized (independent groups like Tharaka, Tigania).
• Religious leaders played important role, foretold future.

Social:

• Organized into clans of related families. Had age-groups and age-set system.
• Practiced circumcision.
• Believed in witchcraft, had medicinemen and diviners.
• Conducted traditional ceremonies.
• Worshipped God, performed sacrifices.

Economic:

• Some cultivated (sorghum, millet, potatoes, beans); others kept livestock (cattle, sheep, goats).
• Skilled hunters, gathered fruits/roots.
• Traded with Kikuyu, Taita, Mijikenda, and coastal people.
• Sold honey, arrow poison, tobacco; bought beads, cloth from coast, ivory, food from interior (Samburu, Mbeere).
• Smelted iron (spears, arrow-heads, hoes, knives, cattle bells, jingles).
• Efficient beekeepers.
• Traditional industries: pots, baskets, mats, stools, shields.
• Some fished (near Tana River). Made wood carvings.

Political:

• Organized into clans. Councils of elders ("Nzama Sya Utui").
• Age-set system with age grades (junior, medium, full, senior elders).
• Decentralized. Warriors defended community.
• Council of elders judged cases.

Social:

• Organized into clans based on extended family with common ancestor.
• Initiation (circumcision for boys, clitoridectomy for girls). Polygamy common.
• Worshipped supreme God "Engoro", prayed through ancestral spirits, sacrificed.
• Had medicinemen, rainmakers, prophets.
• Conducted birth, initiation, death ceremonies.

Economic:

• Pastoralists (cattle, sheep, goats).
• Cultivated crops (millet, sorghum, pumpkins, potatoes, beans).
• Men hunted, women gathered wild fruits/roots.
• Traded with Luo, Luhyia.
• Traditional industries: stone carvings, iron hoes.

Political:

• Organized into clans, each ruled by "Omogambi".
• Age-set systems.
• Councils of elders led clans in wars and judged cases.
• Politically decentralized. Warriors defended territory.

Social:

• Social organization based on the clan. Practiced age-set system; boy initiation every five years.
• Elders were clan leaders. Intermarriages between Kayas.
• Division of labor (children for cattle, young men for building, hunting, clearing).
• Worshipped God, offered sacrifices.
• Conducted birth, initiation, marriage ceremonies.

Economic:

• Fished in Indian Ocean.
• Kept livestock (cattle, sheep, goats).
• Hunted, gathered fruits, honey, vegetables.
• Traditional industries: weaving, basketry.
• Grew millet.
• Traded with Swahilis and interior people (Akamba).

Political:

• Political setup under clan control. Councils of elders sorted out "Kayas" matters.
• Age-set system existed.
• Warriors defended territory, maintained law/order.
• Council of elders judged cases.

Social:

• Organized into clans (common ancestor). Clans grouped into "Gweng" (larger territorial units) with "Joka" (foreign lineages) and clansmen.
• Council of elders presided over religious ceremonies.
• Worshipped God "Nyasaye" through ancestral spirits in sacred places.
• Priests linked people with spirits. Diviners interpreted God's messages.
• Sacrificed for thanks/appeasement.
• Initiated boys/girls by removing six lower teeth, prepared for marriage.
• Conducted burial, naming, beer drinking, wrestling ceremonies.

Economic:

• Cultivated crops (beans, sweet potatoes, peas, millet, groundnuts, sorghum).
• Hunted wild animals, collected fruits, vegetables, roots.
• Traded with Abaluhyia, Abagusii, Nandi, Kipsigis.
• Smelted iron (iron tools).
• Traditional industries: pottery, basketry, cloth making.
• Fished in Lake Victoria and rivers (Sondu, Nzoia, Nyando, Kuja, Yala).

Political:

• Organized into clans, decentralized. Families headed by "Jaduong".
• "Gweng" formed by merged clans. Council of elders (clan heads, remarkable elders).
• Related clans formed alliances.
• Each Luo alliance (Oganda) had political leader "Ruoth".
• Individual clan councils ("doho") controlled by "Ladito".
• "Buch Piny" council advised Ruoth (e.g., military leader "Osumba Mirwayi").
• Council of elders solved internal disputes, declared war, performed political/religious functions.
• "Doho" operated under smaller regional sub-divisions.
• Warriors ("Thuondi") raided neighbors.

Social:

• Organized by totemic clans. House as social unit, families formed by houses.
• Initiation (circumcision for boys) at five-year intervals. Had age-set and age-grades, cyclic age sets.
• Worshipped supreme God "Asis", sacrificed to Him.
• Had medicinemen, prophets, rainmakers.
• Orkoyiot acted as spiritual and political leader, foretold future, advised council of elders.

Economic:

• Mixed farming (crops, livestock: cattle, sheep, goats).
• Smelted iron (tools/weapons: spears, cattle bells, hoes).
• Traded with Luhyia, Maasai, Luo.
• Traditional industries: weaving, basketry, pottery.
• Some hunted, gathered roots/fruits/vegetables.
• Kept beehives (honey).

Political:

• Organized into clans. Government was decentralized.
• Councils of elders solved major disputes. Age-set systems.
• Well-trained warriors defended territory (from age-grade system).
• Institution of Orkoyiot introduced in 19th century, united people.
• Developed society based on semi-independent units called Bororoisiek/Bororiet, each under council of elders.
• Political units of several clans controlled by "Kok" council (judged cases, settled disputes).

Social:

• Organized into clans and had age-set systems.
• Initiation promoted boys/warriors to next age-set; "Olaiguanani" (leader/spokesman) emerged.
• Worshipped God "Enkai", sent prayers through Oloiboni in shrines, sacrificed under sacred trees.
• Lived in Manyattas, life based on cattle/grazing land preservation.
• Had ritual experts/diviners. Women/children were lowest members.

Economic:

• Predominantly pastoral. Kwavi (Iloikop) section cultivated (millet, sorghum); Purko section kept cattle, never cultivated.
• Traded with Luo, Nandi, Kikuyu, Kamba.
• Hunted wild animals, gathered roots/fruits for food/medicine.
• Smelted iron (knives, daggers, spears, arrow-heads).
• Traditional industries: basketry, weaving.
• Organized cattle raids. Women milked cows, built huts.

Political:

• Organized into clans under councils of elders. No centralized system; existed in independent sub-tribal sections (Purko, Kwavi, Sampur).
• Under control of ritual experts Oloibon. Leadership succession was hereditary (Oloibon's son took over).
• Men grouped into age-sets/groups.
• Strong army of warriors (Morans) defended/expanded territory.
• Senior warriors debated political issues.
• Eunoto ceremony marked Morans' graduation to junior elders.
• Elders retired from public life, consulted for difficult political issues.

Social:

• Believed in all-powerful God controlling destiny; conducted prayers/sacrifices.
• Converted to Islam through interaction with Muslim immigrants, embraced Muslim culture.
• Organized into clans of related families.
• Conducted boy initiation, grouped into age-sets.

Economic:

• Kept livestock (cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys, camels).
• Those near wells/rivers cultivated.
• Smelted iron (tools/weapons e.g., swords).
• Hunted wild animals, gathered bird eggs.
• Traded with neighbors (Oromo).

Political:

• Organized into clans (common ancestor). Each clan headed by a council of elders.
• Controlled by overall leader Sultan.
• Clans joined for common enemy.
• Age-sets provided warriors; senior age-sets retired.

Social:

• One of Oromo-speaking communities. Organized into clans of related families.
• Had age-groups and age-sets which integrated the community.
• Believed in one God "Wak". Initially traditional religion, many converted to Islam by 19th century.

Economic:

• Pastoralists (sheep, cattle, goats, camels).
• Hunted elephants for ivory, sold to Swahili traders (Mijikenda, Pokomo).
• Women gathered insects, roots, honey.
• Simple industry: cloth from animal skins, pottery.
• Some cultivated grains (peas, beans, pepper, vegetables).

Political:

• Organized into clans. Councils of elders headed clans, presided over assemblies, acted as ritual experts.
• Councils settled disputes, maintained law/order, their decisions were final.
• Age-set system provided warriors.
• Clans were autonomous, formed alliances in disaster.
• Politically decentralized.

• Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, Romans, Phoenicians, Indians, Chinese, Arabs.
• Main reason: To trade.

Commodities obtained from interior (exported):

• Ivory, rhinoceros horns, leopard skins, other animal skins, ostrich feathers, copper, slaves, tortoise shells, gold, ambergris.

Commodities obtained from outside world (imported):

• Spices, cowrie shells, drugs, swords/daggers, salt, porcelain cups/bowls, glassware, rugs/carpets, beads, cloth, sugar, mats.

• Remains of Greek and Chinese coins (Malindi, Mombasa, Lamu, Gedi, Jumba la Mtwana).
• Fragments of Chinese pottery (cups, jars, bowls).
• Archaeological findings of foreign items.
• Written documents: Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, Geography by Ptolemy.
• Long-term presence of Arabs along the coast.

Reasons:

• Availability of goods demanded by both sides.
• Monsoon winds enabled dhow travel.
• Relative political stability of Kenyan coastal city-states (e.g., Seyyid Said ensured peace).
• Easy accessibility by sea due to natural harbors (Mombasa, Malindi).
• Establishment of strong trade links.

• Coastal Arabs and Swahilis obtained commodities from interior communities (Akamba, Baganda, Yao, Nyamwezi).
• African traders exchanged goods for beads, sugar, salt, cloth, glassware, daggers, cowrie shells, porcelain cups.
• Barter was the form of exchange.
• Arab traders transported items across Indian Ocean or sold to other Asian traders (Chinese, Greeks, Indians).
• Dhows sailed to E. Africa (Nov-April) and to Asia (June-Oct).

• To trade.
• As refugees escaping political and religious persecutions (after Prophet Mohammed's death).
• To establish settlements.
• For adventure and exploration.

• Establishment of coastal towns (Malindi, Mombasa, Lamu, Kilifi, Gedi).
• Intermarriage between foreigners (Arabs) and Africans.
• Adoption of Asiatic architecture (rectangular stone houses).
• Spread of Islamic culture (Arabic dress, mosques, conversion to Islam).
• Spread of Kiswahili language (main language by 1500).
• Introduction of new crops (rice, coconut).
• Stimulated commercial activities in the interior (e.g., Akamba-Mijikenda trade).
• Arabs controlled coast using Islamic law.
• Emergence of a class of prosperous traders.
• Development of East African slave trade.
• Africans acquired foreign goods (cloth, beads, glassware).
• Development of trade routes (Mombasa to Ukambani, Bagamoyo to Nyamwezi/Buganda).
• Suffering and death due to slave trade.
• Stimulated European interest, leading to colonization.
• Coast became known to outside world, strengthened ties with India/Far East.

• Exchanged slaves for goods (cloth, beads, guns).
• Kidnapping free men.
• Conducting raids (common with Yao, Nyamwezi).
• Organizing intercommunity wars and selling war captives.
• Rulers selling criminals as punishment.
• Enticing children with sweets and capturing them for sale at Zanzibar slave market.

• Death of many innocent Africans due to raids.
• Destruction of property (burning houses).
• Suffering of broken families (children, women).
• Establishment of slave trade settlements (Bagamoyo, Frere Town).
• Expansion of communities dependent on slave trade (Nyamwezi, Yao).
• Encouraged development of trade merchants (Tippu Tip, Msiri, Kivoi).
• Depopulation of East Africa.
• Opened interior for trade in other items (ivory).
• Spread of Islam and Kiswahili in the interior.
• Abandonment of African traditional industries (pottery, weaving, iron smelting) due to raids.
• African cultures affected by forced displacement.

Reasons for coming:

• Conquer Arabs (who attacked Christians in Spain/Portugal).
• Spread Christianity.
• Seek legendary Prester John in Ethiopia (for alliance against Arabs).
• Trade with coastal traders.
• Vasco da Gama sought guide to India (landed at Malindi).
• Conquer coastal towns and acquire wealth (e.g., Alfonzo de Almeida).
• Settle along the coast (built Fort Jesus in Mombasa).

Interest after 1550:

• Provide bases for ships and troops.
• Levy tributes from wealthy coastal merchants.
• Control Indian Ocean trade.
• Capture Sofala gold trade.
• Use East coast as strategic base for controlling trade to Europe.
• Prevent Turks/Egyptians from gaining support in case of war.
• Natural harbors for anchoring ships.
• Conducive climate, fresh water, and food supplies before India journey.

Conquest (up to 1510):

• Pedro Cabral failed to capture Sofala (1500).
• Vasco da Gama conquered Kilwa (1502).
• Ruy Lourenco Ravasco conquered Zanzibar (1503), forced tribute.
• Fransisco de Almeida conquered Kilwa, Mombasa, Sofala (1505); Brava resisted, was burnt.
• By 1506, Pate and East coast under Portuguese control.
• Portuguese rule lasted 200 years, headquartered at Mozambique and Mombasa (under a Captain answerable to Viceroy in Goa, India).
• Captain's duties: Collect tribute, suppress rebellion, supervise ruling families, impose customs duties, represent Viceroy.

Reasons for easy conquest:

• Severe punishment of resisting city-states deterred others.
• Wazimba (cannibals) assisted Portuguese.
• Frequent surprise attacks on Arab settlements.
• Ruler of Malindi collaborated.
• Coastal city-states were disunited.
• Superior military training and equipment (powerful guns, cannons).
• Natural harbors in Mombasa/Malindi provided bases.
• Constant reinforcement from home/Goa.
• Portuguese fought with determination to establish empire.
• Strong, superior ships compared to Arab dhows.

Decline of Portuguese rule:

• Rivalry from Egyptians, British, Turks, Persians, Oman Arabs, East African Coastal Arabs.
• Intense rivalry from British and Dutch.
• Invasions by Muslim nations (Oman, Turkey).
• Constant rebellions from city-states.
• Corrupt and inefficient administrators.
• Malindi refused support due to mistreatment.
• Never united with inhabitants, mutual suspicion.
• Decline in gold revenue and Indian Ocean trade (main income source).
• Portugal weakened by union with Spain (annexed 1590-1640).
• Portugal too small to provide enough soldiers/administrators.
• Defeated and driven out of Fort Jesus by Oman Arabs after 33-month siege.

Impact of Portuguese administration:

• Positive:
  • Introduced new crops (sweet potatoes, groundnuts, cassava, maize, pawpaws, pineapples).
  • Built Fort Jesus (now museum).
  • Introduced "Guano" (bird droppings) as fertilizer and crop rotation.
  • Portuguese words contributed to Kiswahili (e.g., 'mvinyo').
  • Coastal inhabitants borrowed Portuguese architecture.
  • Directly linked Kenya coast with India.
  • Attempted to introduce Christianity (failed).
• Negative:
  • Frequent attacks/wars led to loss of many lives.
  • Property destroyed (burning towns).
  • Traditional industries declined.
  • Coastal towns declined (Gedi, Jumba La Mtwana never recovered).
  • Affected coastal people's culture.
  • Economic development retarded.
  • Intensified slave trade (due to firearms).
  • Suffering from attacks.
  • Developed hatred between coastal people and Portuguese, and among city-states.
  • Introduced dangerous weapons (guns).

• Encouraged plantation agriculture:
  • Seyyid Said made Zanzibar his capital (1840), controlled East coast towns and international Indian Ocean trade.
  • Appointed governors (Liwalis) for city-states.
  • Oman Arabs settled, developed grain plantations (Malindi, Takaungu) and coconut plantations (Mombasa).
  • Slave labor used, increasing 19th-century slave trade.
  • Encouraged wealthy Arab/Swahili settlers to acquire land for plantations.
  • Food sold in Oman, Zanzibar, Pemba (which grew cloves).
  • Signing of Hammerton Treaty (1845) forbidding slave export increased slave labor supply on coastal plantations.
  • Increased production of rice, maize, millet, beans; Kenya coast became East Africa's "granary" by 1870.

Factors enabling Oman rule:

• Oman Arabs drove Portuguese out of Fort Jesus, replacing them.
• Seyyid Said appointed governors (Liwali).
• Transferred capital to Zanzibar (1840) for closer control.
• Overcame rebellious Mazrui governors before transfer.

Reasons for choosing Zanzibar as capital:

• Good climate for crop growing.
• Deep natural harbor for ships.
• Fresh water.
• Fertile soils for cultivation.
• Close to the coast and strategically placed.
• Convenient for mainland trade.
• Zanzibar supported his efforts to control the coast.

Impact of Oman rule:

• Establishment of clove plantations in Zanzibar and Pemba.
• Development of slave trade (slaves as laborers).
• Establishment of a commercial empire.
• Stimulated long distance trade (Yao, Akamba, Nyamwezi).
• Growth/expansion of towns (Kilwa, Pemba, Zanzibar).
• Intensified Swahili culture.
• Establishment of strong political empire under Sultan.
• Indian traders (Banyans) introduced Rupee as currency.
• Intensified slave trade broke down families, caused suffering/loss of property.

• Expanded rapidly in 19th century, especially under Seyyid Said.
• Involved trade between East Coast and interior.
• Developed due to demand for slaves (Arabia) and ivory (Europe).
• People involved: Akamba, Mijikenda (Kenya), Nyamwezi, Yao (Tanzania), coastal Arabs, Swahilis, Baganda (Uganda).
• Main commodities from interior: Ivory, slaves.
• Exchanged for cloth, beads, glassware, utensils, ironware, carpets.
• Arabs/Swahilis initially waited at coast, then penetrated interior (1860s), taking control from Africans.
• Traveled in caravans for security. Goods shipped to Asia.

Factors facilitating Akamba long distance trade:

• Prominent personalities like Kivoi attracted large followings for expeditions.
• Geographical position (middlemen between coast and central Kenya for ivory).
• Kambaland's unsuitability for agriculture (hilly, rocky, sandy, inadequate rain, poor soils).
• Drought and famine in Ukambani (2nd quarter 19th century).
• Experienced traders with acquired skills.
• No competition from coastal traders (feared Maasai warriors, Akamba gave false stories about fierce interior people).

Organization of Akamba trade:

• Organized into trading and hunting groups.
• Hunters killed animals (elephants for ivory), obtained hides/skins.
• Traders organized into caravans (approx. 700 people: slaves, porters, traders).
• Initially barter system.
• Moved into interior (Lake Baringo, Samburu).
• Resting places (Mariakani).
• Initially middlemen, later coastal traders penetrated interior.

Decline of Akamba long distance trade:

• Competition from Arab/Swahili traders.
• Kikuyu/Embu refused trade due to Akamba slave raids.
• Raids by Oromo and Maasai made Kamba trade insecure.
• Interior communities took goods directly to coast.
• European occupation and abolition of slave trade.
• Difficult to transport ivory after abolition.
• Drastically reduced elephant numbers made trade uneconomical.
• Akamba's "scare stories" proved untrue.

Impact of Akamba long distance trade on Kenya:

• Foreign traders became aware of Kenya's wealth, contributing to European colonization.
• Interior people developed taste for imported goods (cloth, beads, glassware, ironware).
• Stimulated local and inter-community trade.
• Contributed to expansion of slave trade (slaves carried ivory).
• Gave rise to prosperous merchants (Kivoi, Ngonyo).
• Strengthened Wanga kingdom (wealth, firearms).
• Opened interior for trade with coastal Arabs/Swahilis.
• Improved communication between interior and coast.
• Islam and Swahili culture penetrated interior through Kamba converts.
• New crops introduced (mangoes, rice, bananas).
• Akamba borrowed aspects of other cultures.

• Seyyid Said's efforts enabled East Africa's involvement in 19th-century international trade.
• Foreign traders (USA, Britain, France) signed commercial treaties, opened consulates in Zanzibar.
• Seyyid Said invited Indian Banyans to settle and participate.

Factors for development:

• Commercial relations created by Seyyid Said's treaties.
• Funding for traders (Indian Banyans loaned).
• Seyyid Said maintained peace and political stability.
• Industrial Revolution in Britain created high demand for raw materials from East Africa.
• East Africans demanded foreign manufactured goods.
• East African coast had experienced traders.
• Natural harbors and good climate attracted foreign traders.
• Existence of wealthy traders.

Impact:

• Boosted East African slave trade (introduction of guns).
• Paved way for colonizers.
• Opened up interior, encouraging missionaries to stop slave trade and spread Christianity.
• Developed taste for imported goods (guns, cloth, ironware).
• Growth of urban centers.
• East African coast exposed to outside world.

• Portuguese first attempted, failed.
• 19th-century German and British missionaries succeeded, establishing mission schools, hospitals, churches.
• Christian missionary societies: Church Missionary Society (CMS), London Missionary Society (LMS), Baptist Mission Society, Bremen Society, Besel Missionary Society, Scottish Missionary Society, Church of England Society for Propagation of the Gospel, Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society, Universities Mission to Central Africa.

Reasons for coming:

• Carry out exploration.
• Spread Christianity.
• Civilize Africans.
• Abolish slave trade and slavery.
• Spread Western education and culture.
• Introduce legitimate trade.
• Introduce better health services.

Activities (19th century):

• Trained freed slaves to spread Christianity.
• Spread Christianity, converted local people.
• Established churches, schools, hospitals, dispensaries.
• Translated Bible into African languages.
• Paved way for European colonization.
• Helped eradicate slave trade by advocating to British Government.

Factors contributing to spread:

• Support from Seyyid Said (letters to governors).
• Friendliness of some African traditional rulers (Nabongo Mumia, Kabaka Mutesa, Mirambo).
• Establishment of many mission schools and churches.
• Missionaries studied African languages, translated Bible (Kikamba, Kirabai, Kiswahili).
• Freed slaves from 'FRERE TOWN' served as catechists.
• Development of transport/communication (railways, roads).
• Discovery of Quinine (reduced fear of malaria).
• Peace during colonial period (abolition of slave trade, end of inter community wars).

Problems encountered:

• Language barrier.
• Problems of transport and communication.
• Tropical diseases (malaria).
• Lack of adequate capital.
• Severe opposition from Islam.
• Attacks by hostile African communities (Nandi).
• Theft of property due to lack of security.
• Rivalry between different missionary groups.
• Shortages of essential human requirements (food, water).
• African communities opposed interference with their culture.
• Attacks by slave traders.

Contributions to welfare of East African people:

• Established schools, taught literacy.
• Provided modern medical services (hospitals, dispensaries).
• Advocated for abolition of slave trade/slavery, established freed slave settlements.
• Spread Christianity, made converts.
• Translated Bible into African languages.
• Contributed to transport/communication development (roads to mission stations).
• Helped eradicate inhuman practices (human sacrifice), discouraged witchcraft.
• Introduced new crops (tea, coffee, cotton, pyrethrum) and better farming methods.

Results of activities:

• Bible translated into native languages.
• Africans converted to Christianity, abandoning traditional customs (polygamy, human sacrifice).
• Introduced Western education and civilization.
• Established medical services, improving welfare, reducing death rate.
• Explored parts of Kenya, reported findings, contributing to colonization.
• Experimented with new crops (coffee), introduced new farming methods.
• Developed transport/communication (roads, telephone lines).
• Collected useful information on African customs/institutions (e.g., Dr. Krapf on Mijikenda), useful for history reconstruction.

• Citizen: Someone legally recognized as belonging to a particular country or state.
• Citizenship: The act of legally belonging to a country or state, providing legal rights.

a) Citizenship by Birth:

• Born in Kenya, and parents are Kenyan citizens at birth.
• Born outside Kenya, and father is a Kenyan citizen at birth.
• Kenyan citizens by birth cannot be denied citizenship.

b) Citizenship by Registration:

• Offered to individuals 21+ years old who satisfy conditions to the Minister.
• Conditions: Of African origin or Commonwealth citizen, has qualities of a suitable citizen, resided in Kenya for 5 years, good character, adequate knowledge of English or Kiswahili.
• If of African origin: Born in an African country that allows Kenyans citizenship by legislation, OR resident for at least 10 years in such a country and not a citizen of an independent African state.

c) Citizenship by Naturalization:

• Making a foreigner a citizen.
• Conditions: 21+ years old, knows enough Kiswahili, good character.
• Lawfully resided in Kenya for at least 12 months preceding application.
• Intends to continue living in Kenya if naturalized.
• Lawfully and ordinarily lived in Kenya for 4 years in previous 8 years (including preceding 12 months).
• Applies as prescribed by parliament, Minister grants certificate.

• Only for registered or naturalized citizens.
• If disloyal to Kenya by conduct or speech.
• If obtained by false representation or fraud.
• If imprisoned for 12 months without pardon within first 5 years of registration/naturalization in any country.
• If resided in another country for 7 continuous years and not in Kenya's service since becoming citizen.

• Right to own property: In any area of the country.
• Right to life: No intentional deprivation, murder, or suicide; prosecuted if committed.
• Right to liberty: No imprisonment/detention without reason, no enslavement; arrested person must be taken to court within 24 hours.
• Freedom of conscience and religion: Active participation in chosen, legally registered religion; free thinking.
• Freedom of expression: Hold opinion without government interference, but no incitement against government.
• Freedom of movement: Move/live anywhere in Kenya; no trespassing on prohibited areas (private homes, state house).
• Freedom of speech: Say anything as long as it doesn't interfere with others' freedoms or go against government.
• Right of protection from discrimination: Fair treatment irrespective of sex, gender, race, tribe, political opinion, color; mutual respect.
• Right of protection against arbitrary search and entry: No search without consent or valid court warrant (unless suspected of crime, escaped prison, seditious documents, with search warrant).
• Right of protection from the law of land: Fair hearing within reasonable time (max 24 hours, except holidays/weekends) for criminal offense.
• Right of protection from torture and any other insecurity: No torture, even by police; presumed innocent until proven guilty.

• Interfering with others' rights.
• Misusing rights/freedoms to destabilize country (causing instability, criticizing government, dispersing seditious publications).
• Misusing freedom of religion to undermine government or disunite Kenyans.
• Government taking individual's land for public use (roads, hospitals, schools) with compensation.
• During wartime, limiting freedom of movement by curfew or state of emergency.
• Denial of freedom of speech for uttering false statements about others/government, publishing seditious documents, inciting against government, talking ill against President.
• Occasions for denying personal liberty: Unsound mind (mad, crazy), drug addict, contagious disease, under 18 (for education), convicted criminal.
• Occasions for denying right to life: During war, suppressing rebellion/riot, preventing criminal offense (police shooting suspects), defending property/self.
• Occasions for denying right to life (legal): Convicted of murder by court of law.
• Limitations of freedom of worship: Not allowed to preach to incite instability/disunite Kenyans, or to undermine government.

• Guarantees right to life (punishable for murder/suicide).
• Guarantees right to own property (interference prosecutable).
• Guarantees freedom of conscience (right to think and worship).
• Guarantees freedom of association or assembly.
• Guarantees right to worship and join chosen religion.
• Protects against arbitrary search, detention, arrest.
• Provides freedom of movement.
• Protects from enslavement or forced unpaid labor.
• Provides freedom of expression/speech (writing, talking).

• Obey all Kenyan laws to maintain peace and order.
• Participate in development projects (roads, dispensaries, hospitals, schools).
• Participate in democratic process (voting for representatives in parliament, local authorities).

• High degree of patriotism (participation in development, respect for law).
• High degree of honesty.
• High degree of generosity.
• Always well-informed about country's activities (participate in democratic process, public meetings, elections).
• Free to air views on issues affecting people/country.

• Meaning: The process of uniting all people of Kenya regardless of cultures, occupations, religions, races, and ethnic groups into one solid, responsible nation.

Importance:

• Encourages socialization among diverse groups.
• Encourages rapid economic and social development (trade, games, sports).
• Brings national stability and security.
• Promotes nation building.
• Enables national prosperity.
• Enhances patriotism and nationalism.
• Fuses various communities into one.
• Causes people to develop a sense of pride for their nation.
• Encourages foreign visitors.
• Encourages teamwork in solving national problems (drought, famine, epidemics).

• National language: Kiswahili and English enable communication.
• The constitution: Protects citizens from discrimination, provides equal opportunities.
• Education: Helps children meet, mix, interact freely; develops sense of belonging and desire to serve the nation.
• Equal distribution of resources: Schools, water, health centers distributed fairly.
• Social economic interactions: Trade, games, marriage ceremonies.
• The Presidency: All Kenyans united under one respected President who links the nation globally.

• Tribalism: Favouring one's own tribe in employment, economic benefits, education, promotions.
• Nepotism: Favouring relatives.
• Racism/Racialism: Favouring people of one's race (e.g., Africans favouring Africans, discriminating Asians).
• Religious differences: Division due to different beliefs and practices.
• Corruption: Giving/asking for bribes, misuse of public funds.
• Uneven economic development: Some areas more developed than others (communication, research, industry, trade).

• May imply a state of war or battle, a struggle, or a long fight.
• May imply a situation where ideas or beliefs differ, leading to ideological/religious differences.
• May imply disagreement or clash, quarrels, or sharp arguments.

• Political conflicts (wars, battles, ethnic clashes).
• Religious conflicts.
• Cultural conflicts.
• Ideological conflicts.
• Conflict of laws.
• Conflict of opinion.
• Family conflict.
• Ethnic conflicts.

• Misunderstanding of people or nations.
• Differing ideologies.
• Disunity.
• Struggle for power and material wealth.
• Formation of different social classes (stratification).
• Inferiority and superiority complexes.
• Struggle for leadership.

• Use of dialogue.
• Developing understanding by settling differences or establishing political relations.
• Forming commercial/trade partnerships.
• Developing communication links.
• Signing of peace agreements or treaties.
• Engaging arbitrators.
• Settling religious differences through ecumenical organizations/programs.
• Encouraging equitable distribution/ownership of property and wealth.
• Promoting responsibility, accountability, respect, honesty, charity, and pursuit of peace.
• Forming national and international organizations for peace/harmony.

• First, identify the type of conflict.
• Second, isolate the parties involved.
• Then, cross-examine the major causes.
• Engage an impartial or neutral arbitrator.
• Use dialogue.
• If stalemate, engage more arbitrators (must maintain neutrality/understanding).
• Exhaust available ways, means, and machinery for conflict resolution.
• Involve neutral leaders, elders, lawyers, opinion leaders, mediators.
• Refer to past similar issues (if outcome negative, try new approach).
• If parties agree, sign binding agreements or treaties.
• If parties fail to agree, encourage constant meetings and use many mediators until agreement.
• Negotiation, mediation, and arbitration are necessary: Negotiation involves studying conflict, analyzing facts, discussing until solution, and signing agreement. Arbitrator/mediator must be neutral, without vested interests, corruption, or relation to parties.
• Records agreement if reached, requests parties to honor it.

• Interstate conflict: Disagreement between two countries (boundary disputes, hatred between heads of state, livestock raids, ideological differences, human rights/international law abuse).
• Conflict between two people: Common (failure to pay debt, land ownership, family disagreement, political differences, jealousy).
• Conflict between a state and an individual: When individual human rights are denied (e.g., government takes land without compensation), or powerful individuals grab public land.
• Conflict between two or more groups: Stiff business competition, land ownership claims, power struggle by rival political parties, religious differences.

• Explains rules for reaching agreement.
• Acts as referee to ensure no interruptions.
• Listens to parties, compiles facts to help reach agreement.
• Offers own solutions; parties offer suggestions.
• Records agreement if reached, requests parties to honor it.