FORM FOUR Study Notes

Definition and Scope: World War I was a global conflict involving 135 countries, resulting in over 15 million deaths. It began in August 1914 and concluded in 1918.

Direct Trigger: The assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife by Gavrilo Princip on June 28, 1914, directly triggered the war.

Actual Causes (Underlying Factors):

• System of Alliances: Agreements between countries for mutual support created two antagonistic power blocs in Europe:
  • Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary (joined 1879), and Italy (joined 1882). By the war's end, this expanded to the Central Powers including Bulgaria and Turkey.
  • Triple Entente: France and Russia (1894), later joined by Great Britain (1907). This was a military alliance driven by treaties and fears of growing German power, later generally referred to as the Allies, including Italy and Japan. This system fostered fear and suspicion, transforming local disputes into general conflict.
• Imperialism: Countries taking over new lands for rule. By 1900, Britain and France held vast territories, increasing rivalry with Germany, which entered the colonial scramble late. This scramble for raw materials and markets due to industrialization led to clashes of imperial interests.
• Economic Rivalry: Marxism suggested capitalism would inevitably lead to war through economic rivalry. Industrialized European powers sought to expand territory for raw materials and markets, leading to conflict.
• Militarism: Governments giving high profile to the army and military forces. A growing European divide led to an arms race, with French and German armies doubling between 1870 and 1914. Britain and Germany competed for naval mastery, exemplified by Britain's 1906 introduction of the 'Dreadnought' battleship, which Germany soon replicated. Germany's Von Schlieffen Plan involved attacking France through Belgium if Russia mobilized against Germany.
• Nationalism: Strong support for one's country's rights and interests. The Congress of Vienna (after Napoleon's exile) left Germany and Italy divided, fueling nationalist movements for re-unification (Italy 1861, Germany 1871). France was angered by the loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany after the Franco-Prussian War. Austria-Hungary and Serbia contained various nationalist groups seeking independence.
• Moroccan Crises (1904, 1911): Britain gave Morocco to France in 1904. Germany supported Moroccan independence in 1905, nearly causing war, resolved by the Algeciras Conference (1906) which affirmed French possession and strengthened Anglo-French ties. In 1911, Germany again protested French possession (Agadir Crisis), with Britain supporting France, and Germany backing down for part of French Congo. This indicated Germany's fragile relations with France and reinforced a belief that Germany sought to dominate Europe.
• Bosnian Crisis (1908): Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia, angering Serbia, which felt the province should be theirs. Russia (allied with Serbia) and Germany (allied with Austria-Hungary) mobilized, but Russia backed down, avoiding war. Subsequent Balkan wars (1911-1912) and Austrian intervention against Serbian acquisitions heightened tension.
• Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1914): The Black Hand, a Serb nationalist secret society, assassinated Franz Ferdinand and Sophie in Sarajevo. This brought Austro-Serbian tensions to a head, leading to declarations of war within 30 days.

Course of the War:

Fought across Europe, Africa, and Asia, both on land and sea.

European Fronts:

• Western Front: Most fighting between Germany and the Allies took place in Belgium and France, as per the Schlieffen Plan. The Schlieffen Plan was designed for a quick attack on France via neutral Belgium (taking six weeks) while Russia mobilized, followed by a move of troops to the Russian front. However, it assumed Russia would need six weeks to mobilize (she mobilized faster) and Germany would defeat France in less than six weeks, both of which were weaknesses.
  • Germany invaded Belgium on August 4, 1914, leading Britain to declare war. The Belgian resistance at Liège delayed German plans.
  • Christmas Truce (1914): A temporary halt in fighting on parts of the Western Front, initiated by Germans, with exchanges of gifts and visits across lines.
  • By 1915, the Western Front became a stalemate characterized by trench warfare (from Switzerland to the North Sea), barbed wire, mines in "no man's land," and the use of gas. Attempts to break the stalemate led to massive casualties, such as 60,000 British deaths in one day at the Battle of the Somme (1916).
  • Battle of Verdun (1916): German assault on Verdun, lasting from February to December 1916, was one of the longest and bloodiest attrition battles, causing immense French and German casualties.
• Eastern Front: Fought in Central and Eastern Europe. Russia was attacked by Germany on August 1, 1914, and by Austria-Hungary on August 6. Russians were decisively defeated by Austro-German forces at the Battles of Tannenberg and Masurian Lakes in August and September 1914.

War in the Seas:

Fierce naval battles, like in May 1916, where British intelligence decoded German wireless code to counter their fleet in the North Sea, resulting in significant ship losses on both sides.

Importance of Britain's Naval Supremacy:

• Blocked Central Powers (especially Germany) from accessing food and raw materials, derailing their war plans.
• Enabled Allies to capture Central Powers' colonies.
• Maintained uninterrupted communication for Allies and safeguarded British supplies.

End of World War I:

• Final Phase: A second German onslaught on France in 1918, where German forces were decisively defeated by USA soldiers.
• Two Key Events Leading to End:
  1. Russia's withdrawal from the war after the Great Russian Revolution. The 1917 revolution led to war weariness, poverty, and hunger. The Bolsheviks under Vladimir Lenin signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Central Powers in March 1918, ending fighting and giving Germany land in Eastern Europe.
  2. USA's declaration of war against the Central Powers.
     • Reasons for USA Entry: German U-boat attacks on American ships (like Lusitania) carrying food and weapons to Britain, which killed Americans. The Zimmerman Telegram (Germany's secret proposal to Mexico for an alliance against the USA). Concerns about safeguarding trade with Britain and potential financial/industrial losses if Allied powers were defeated. Links between German sympathizers and industrial sabotage in the USA. Growing anti-German sentiment due to German "cruelty" and Allied sympathizers having relatives in France or Britain. The USA declared war on Germany on April 6, 1917, joining the Allies.
• Armistice: Germany declared a republic and negotiated with Allied Supreme Commander Ferdinand Foch. Harsh terms were given to Germany: withdrawal from occupied territories (including colonies), withdrawal of forces west of the Rhine, surrender of warships, Allied occupation of parts of Germany, and release of Allied POWs. Germany signed the armistice on November 9, 1918, at 11:00 AM.

Reasons for Allied Victory:

• Many supporters from 25 states (Britain, France, Belgium, Russia, Italy, USA, Japan, Portugal), providing more manpower.
• Germany's failure to control expensive colonies, some of which turned against her.
• USA's entry accelerated the defeat of Central Powers due to its industrial and economic might.
• Able and focused political leaders like Lloyd George (British PM) and Georges Clemenceau (French PM).
• German technical mistakes, such as the invasion of neutral Belgium, turned world opinion against the Central Powers.
• Superior naval power of the Allies (British Royal Navy) enabled a naval blockade, causing severe food shortages for Central Powers.
• Germany fought on many fronts.
• Germany was let down by allies like Italy (who decamped) and Bulgaria/Austria-Hungary (who needed constant assistance). Turkey easily accepted defeat.
• Allies had superior financial and industrial resources in Europe and their colonies.
• Allies possessed powerful weapons (Tankers, Aircraft, Battleships).
• Allies were united under General Foch, disadvantaging Central Powers. Germany used young, inexperienced soldiers late in the war due to heavy casualties.
• Central Powers were geographically surrounded and easily blockaded due to lack of extensive coastline.

Peace Treaties:

• Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points (January 1918): Outlined principles for world peace, including:
  1. Self-determination of all peoples.
  2. Public disclosure of diplomatic and international agreements.
  3. Establishment of a League of Nations to discuss international problems and protect small states from aggression.
• Paris Peace Conference (January 1919): Statesmen from 27 Allied powers converged. Central Powers were not involved in discussions but had to sign the final drafts. Key personalities: Lloyd George (Britain), George Clemenceau (France), Woodrow Wilson (USA), Vittorio Orlando (Italy).

Five Treaties Signed:

• Treaty of Versailles with Germany (June 28, 1919).
• Treaty of St. Germaine with Austria (September 10, 1919).
• Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria (November 27, 1919).
• Treaty of Trianon with Hungary (June 4, 1920).
• Treaties of Sevres (1920) and Lausanne (1923) with Turkey.

Terms of the Treaty of Versailles (1919) (often used generally for all treaties):

• Germany declared an aggressor, obligated to pay reparations, and her military capability reduced.
• Germany lost all colonial possessions, placed under League of Nations supervision.
• Treaty of St. Germaine created Yugoslavia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Malta as mandated territories.
• Germany was disarmed, allowed only 100,000 soldiers, navy disbanded, and military conscription banned.
• Germany's population and size reduced; Austria (with large German population) remained independent. Italy gained Stria.
• Rhineland to be permanently demilitarized.
• Germany lost Alsace and Lorraine to France.
• Established the League of Nations.

Failures of the Treaty of Versailles:

• Heavy punishment on Germany, causing deep resentment and bitterness.
• Ignored interests of colonial peoples (German and Turkish possessions handed to France and Britain).
• Failed to cater for minority interests in Europe (e.g., Austria forbidden from merging with Germany despite a national vote for it).
• Italy received a "raw deal" (only Stria).
• USA (President Wilson's idea for League of Nations) did not join due to constitutional prohibition on commitment to such an organization, denying the League diplomatic and economic strength.

Results of World War I:

• Growth of nationalist movements and patriotism in Asia and Africa.
• USA gained upper hand in post-war European affairs, emerging as a leading world power.
• German military capability reduced; heavy indemnity imposed; lost all colonies.
• Beginning of decline of Western imperialism; encouragement for imperial powers to grant more freedom to subjects.
• Creation of new states (Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Finland).
• Germany and Italy fell to dictators (Mussolini, Hitler), contributing to WWII.
• Created bitter feelings and mistrust, continuing until WWII.
• Led to the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia (1917).
• Change of government in Britain.
• Greater use of motor vehicles and aircraft, improving transport.
• Improvement in surgery.
• Destruction of European factories, businesses, property, and infrastructure (1914-1918).
• Led to the Great Depression (1920-1921), affecting economies worldwide.
• Increased taxation by colonial authorities to meet war and post-war demands.

Origin: Established in 1920 by WWI victors at the Treaty of Versailles, primarily to prevent future wars. Idea mooted by US President Woodrow Wilson, supported by Lord Robert Cecil (Britain), Jan Smuts (South Africa), and Leon Bourgeois (France). Came into force on January 10, 1920, in London.

Reasons for Formation:

• Maintenance of world peace and prevention of another world war.
• Foster international cooperation in solving problems.
• Jointly take instant action (economic, military) against aggressors.
• Secure and maintain fair and humane labor conditions.
• Oversee development of territories lost by Central Powers (mandated territories like Tanganyika, Togo).

Main Organs:

• The Council: Permanent members (France, Britain, Italy, Japan) and four non-permanent members elected by the Assembly. Dealt with disputes, arms reduction, arbitral awards, and admittance/expulsion of members.
• The Assembly: Met yearly in Geneva, comprised three delegates per member state. Functions included budget control, admission of new members (two-thirds majority), appointing non-permanent Council members, considering treaties, supervising Council work, appointing International Court of Justice judges, and approving the Secretary-General.
• The Secretariat: Based in Geneva, administrative body led by the Secretary-General. Kept records, conducted correspondence, and implemented decisions.
• The International Court of Justice: Set up 1920-1922, 11 judges and 4 deputy judges elected for nine years, based at The Hague. Decisions were binding.
• International Labour Organization (ILO): Four delegates (two state, two worker) per member state. Aimed to maintain good working conditions.
• The Mandates Commission: Supervised administration of trustee colonies.

Achievements:

• Maintained international peace and security through Permanent Court of International Justice (e.g., Danzig).
• Treated minorities humanely; International Office for Refugees assisted refugees and Nazi victims.
• Assisted in administration of trust territories (Togo, Tanganyika, Cameroon, Iraq, Palestine).
• Solved several interstate disputes peacefully (e.g., Turkey-Iraq frontier over Mosul province, Poland-Germany over Northern Silesia).
• Restored financial stability in Austria post-WWI economic slump.
• Enforced control over arms manufacture/sale and held disarmament meetings.
• Ensured signing of peace treaties (e.g., Locarno treaties of 1925 settling Germany-France boundary disputes).

Failures:

Failed its prime objective of maintaining world peace.

• Failed to solve Sino-Japanese dispute (Japan invaded Manchuria 1931, withdrew from League 1933).
• Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935), Benito Mussolini withdrew from League.
• Failed to stop German violation of Versailles Treaty (re-militarization, navy, airbase).
• Nations continued to make defensive pacts disregarding the treaty.
• Germany invaded other regions (Poland, Austria 1936-1939), and Russia invaded Finland (1939) in violation.

Factors Undermining Effectiveness:

• Member countries unwilling to take disputes to International Court of Justice.
• Germany's determination to increase military strength and aggression.
• Individual nations prioritized national interests over organization's interests.
• Versailles Treaty's harsh terms left Germans aggrieved and uncooperative.
• Lacked executive authority to implement resolutions; lacked a standing army.
• USA's refusal to ratify treaty denied the organization diplomatic and economic strength.
• Shortage of funds.
• Appeasement Policy of Britain and France (e.g., inaction against Japan in China, Germany in Rhineland, Italy in Ethiopia).

Context: The 1930s saw the rise of dictators (Hitler, Mussolini, Franco) defying international opinion, disregarding Versailles Treaty and League of Nations. Their actions and Japan's interfered with peace, as the USA retreated into isolation.

Causes:

• Germany's dissatisfaction and territorial grievances: Harsh and humiliating conditions of Versailles Treaty aggrieved Germans.
• Rise of nationalism in Europe: Fueled by Hitler (desire to dominate, encouraged Sudetenland Germans) and Mussolini (invaded Ethiopia to regain glory after Adowa defeat).
• Political developments in Europe: Fascist government under Mussolini (1922) and Nazi government under Hitler (1933) came to power, initiating aggressive policies.
• Economic problems from the Great Depression (1929-1931): Widespread unemployment, declining wages, poverty, social discontent, and political unrest.
• Germany's failure to pay reparations: Led to French invasion of the Ruhr industrial region, increasing tension.
• Weakening of the League of Nations: Japan and Italy left; League unable to intervene in Russia's invasion of Finland. Secret treaties among League members.
• Spanish Civil War (1936-1939): European powers took sides (France, Britain, Russia supported royalists; Germany, Italy supported General Franco).
• Growth of military alliances: Berlin-Rome Axis (1936) expanded to Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis. Russia-German alliance (to divide Poland) created fear and suspicion.
• Immediate Cause: Germany's invasion of Poland (September 1, 1939). Britain and France declared war on Germany on September 3, 1939. USSR attacked Poland from the East on September 17, 1939, as per the Nazi-Soviet pact. Poland was overrun and divided.

Course of WWII:

• The Phoney War (Sept 1939 - April 1940): A period of 8 months on the Western Front with no major military operations, used by Allies to mobilize and by Hitler to recover from Eastern operations. Unsuccessful peace attempts by Hitler/Stalin and King Leopold/Queen Wilhelmina.
• War in Western Europe:
  • April 1940: Hitler invaded Norway (sea-borne) and Denmark (land).
  • Germany extended attacks to Luxembourg, Netherlands, Belgium. Allies retreated to Dunkirk.
  • June 14, 1940: Germans captured Paris. France sued for peace, leading to German control of Alsace-Lorraine, Northern France, and the Atlantic coastline.
  • Reasons for quick French defeat: Not psychologically prepared, divided, poorly organized, lacked combat planes, poor army-air force communication, generals ignored airforce use.
  • July 1940: Germans attacked Britain (Battle of Britain), but British resistance (mobilized by Winston Churchill, reinforced by USA) forced Hitler to delay.
• War in North Africa: Italian attack on French/British Somaliland. Italian forces advanced to Egypt. June 1942: German forces reinforced Italians. British (General Montgomery) captured Malta. Montgomery attacked Germans at El Alamein (Egypt), forcing retreat. Nov 1942: British/American forces invaded Morocco and Algeria. German army under Rommel surrendered by May 1943 in Tunisia.
• War in the Balkans: August 1940: Hitler attacked/captured Romania and Bulgaria. April 1941: Yugoslavia and Greece taken. May 1941: Crete taken.
• Russian Invasion: June 22, 1941: Hitler attacked USSR, forcing retreat. Failed to capture Moscow before winter. June 1942: German offensive resumed. Defeated at Battle of Stalingrad (Jan 31, 1943) by Russian Red Army (Marshal Zhukov), with heavy German losses. By May 1944, Russians pushed Germans back towards Germany.
  • Reasons for German defeat in Russia: Fighting on multiple fronts, Soviet "scorched earth policy," ill-treatment of Soviet people fostering resentment, weak German military leadership.
• USA Entry into WWII: Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor (Dec 7, 1941) dragged USA into WWII. Dec 8, 1941: USA, Britain, Netherlands declared war on Japan. Germans and Italians declared war on USA.
  • Japan resisted fiercely, sinking British battleships, capturing Hong Kong, Malaya, Singapore, Burma, Dutch East Indies, Philippines, and parts of Western Pacific islands.
  • Japanese forces repulsed en route to Port Moresby (May 1942). Britain attacked Japan from India (1942). Japanese attacked India (1944), defeated at Battle of Kohima.
• Defeat of Germany: After 1942, tide turned against Hitler. German forces defeated in North Africa and France. March 1945: Allies crossed Rhine, pushing Germans out of France (June 1944). Germans also faced Russian attack from East. Hitler committed suicide on April 30, 1945. Germany surrendered unconditionally on May 7, 1945.
  • Reasons for German defeat: Acquired too many territories to control, USSR recovered and rearmed, USA entry (1941) contributed significantly, Germany's Axis powers (4) vs. Allies (27+), and Axis collaborators like Italy surrendered or were burdens.
• Defeat of Japan: After Germany's surrender, Japan continued fierce fighting, including Kamikaze suicide attacks. Allies liberated Japanese-captured territories. After Okinawa defeat, Japan was certain of defeat.
  • Atomic bombs: August 6, 1945: "Little Boy" dropped on Hiroshima (78,000 deaths). August 9, 1945: "Fat Man" dropped on Nagasaki (40,000+ deaths).
  • Japan surrendered unconditionally on August 15, 1945, ending WWII.

Factors for Allied Victory in WWII:

• More wealth (food, raw materials, equipment).
• Control of North Sea ensured safe transportation and blockade of Central Powers.
• USA's entry (strong air force, war resources).
• Germany's inability to control expansive territories, some turning against her.
• Unity, morale, and determination of Allied leaders and fighters.
• Popular sentiment favored Allied victory and Hitler's defeat.
• Hitler's over-confidence and "craziness".
• External support from colonial peoples in Africa, Asia.
• Axis powers dropped out one by one.
• Better industries, financial resources, superior economy, war tactics, and diplomacy.
• USSR recovered and rearmed, attacking Germany.

Social Results of WWII:

• Depopulation and immense suffering (millions perished from war, famine, disease).
• Psychological and emotional suffering from loss of loved ones and torture.
• Change in status of women (started doing work previously monopolized by men, e.g., military, management).
• Permanent ill health and shortened lives due to under-nourishment or captivity.
• Massive destruction of property and infrastructure (homes, buildings, roads, bridges).
• Large number of displaced people/refugees (Jews, Slavs, Poles).
• Fomented bitter feelings and mistrust among warring countries.
• Shed off the myth of European racial superiority over Africans, as European casualties proved mortality.

Political Effects of WWII:

• Defeat of Axis powers led to government changes in Germany, Italy, Japan.
• Division of Europe into two opposing blocs, leading to the Cold War and an arms race between USA and USSR.
• Germany divided into communist East and capitalist West; Berlin also divided.
• Germany and Italy weakened, especially with loss of colonies.
• USA and USSR emerged as superpowers, destroying the pre-war balance of power.
• Demonstrated League of Nations' weakness, leading to UNO formation.
• Rise of nationalism in Asia and Africa, encouraging struggles for independence (e.g., Pakistan, India 1947, Burma 1948, Ceylon 1949).
• Japanese defeat of British and American forces in Far East destroyed myth of European military superiority.
• Creation of new states (e.g., Israel 1948, to settle displaced Jews).

Economic Effects of WWII:

• Disruption of agriculture and industries due to lack of equipment, raw materials, human resources.
• External trade almost halted due to fear and insecurity.
• Increased dependency on colonies by European powers for raw materials for reconstruction.
• Industries established in colonies due to wartime difficulties in running European ones.
• Rise of European economic cooperation, paving way for European Economic Community (1957).

Definition: Cooperation or interaction between individuals or groups of nations.

Benefits:

• Enhance peace/security, promote understanding/unity (cultural exchange), collective solutions to global problems (desertification, warming, pollution), promote economic growth (trade), financial assistance to developing countries.

Ways Nations Relate:

• Economic (trade, loans/grants), Diplomatic (exchange of ambassadors), Political (cooperation between similar political systems), Socio-cultural (exchange/competition in arts, sports).

International Organizations (IGOs & NGOs):

• International Governmental Organizations (IGOs): Formed by sovereign states (e.g., UN, Commonwealth, NAM, AU).
  • Role: Forum for consultation, regulators (WHO), enhance peace/security (peacekeeping), charity/resource distribution (IMF, World Bank).
• International Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs): Created by individuals/private organizations (e.g., Red Cross, Amnesty International).

Founding: Founded after WWII as an organization of independent states.

Objectives:

• Promote/maintain international peace and security, prevent another world war, foster friendly relations, promote human rights/freedoms, promote social progress/better living standards, protect minority interests, promote economic growth (reconstructing war-destroyed economy), replace League of Nations.

Formation Milestones:

• June 1941: Allied declaration in London.
• August 1941: Atlantic Charter (Roosevelt, Churchill) proposed principles for international collaboration in peace/security (respect for human freedom, self determination, no territorial changes without consent).
• January 1, 1942: Representatives of Allied nations signed "Declaration by United Nations" (first official use of term) supporting Atlantic Charter.
• Sept-Oct 1944: Dumbarton Oaks Conference, blueprint for UN aims/structure/functions agreed by USSR, USA, UK, China.
• Feb 1945: Yalta Conference (Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin) resolved to establish international organization.
• April 25, 1945: UN Conference on International Organization began in San Francisco (50 nations), drafted 111-Article Charter.
• Official functions began Oct 24, 1945, after ratification by USSR, USA, Britain, China, France.

Organization:

Open to peace-loving nations accepting Charter obligations. 51 states signed in 1945, growing to 191 by 2003 (Kenya joined Dec 1963).

Principles:

• Sovereign equality of members, good faith fulfillment of obligations, peaceful settlement of disputes, refraining from threat/use of force, assistance to UN actions, ensuring non-members act in accordance for peace/security.

Structure (Six Principal Organs):

• The General Assembly: Main deliberative organ, comprises all member states, cannot enforce action. Has various committees (political/security, economic/financial, social/humanitarian/cultural, trusteeship, administration/budget, legal affairs).
• The Security Council: 15 members (5 permanent: China, France, USA, Russia, UK; 10 non-permanent). Main function: maintain world peace and security.
• Economic and Social Council: 54 members, coordinates UN economic/social work and specialized agencies (trade, women's status, population, science/tech).
• Trusteeship Council: Inherited Mandates Commission's work, promoted social/economic/political/educational advancement of trust territories.
• The Secretariat: Headed by Secretary-General, based in New York. Administrative body, covers all UN Charter areas. Past Secretary Generals listed (Trygve Lie to Ban Ki Moon).
• The International Court of Justice: Headquarters at The Hague, principal judicial body, gives advisory opinions, 15 judges.
• Specialized Agencies: Autonomous organizations related to UN by agreements.

Achievements:

• Maintained peace amid nuclear threats and regional conflicts (over 35 peacekeeping missions).
• Specialized agencies engaged in vast social work (child survival, environment, medical research, agriculture, education).
• Promoted democracy (assisted free/fair elections in 45+ countries).
• Promoted development of skills/potentials (UNDP projects in agriculture, industry, education, environment).
• Promoted Human Rights (80+ agreements enacted since Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948).
• Played vital role in environmental protection (Earth Summit 1992, treaties on biodiversity/climate change).
• Promoted self-determination and independence (80 countries gained independence).
• Provided humanitarian aid to conflict victims (30+ million refugees aided by UNHCR since 1951).

Problems/Challenges:

• National sovereignty: Many countries disregard UN resolutions.
• Unable to stop aggressions/conflicts when superpowers are involved.
• Lacks sufficient funds (e.g., for peacekeeping).
• Lacks effective machinery to effect decisions, no standing army.
• Permanent members with veto powers prioritize national interests.
• Loyalty to other organizations with conflicting interests.
• Ideological disputes (e.g., Cold War) hampered work.
• Arms race generates conflict.
• Differences in economic development levels.
• Increased natural disasters (famine, floods, epidemics) strain resources.

Origin/Structure: Voluntary association of 54 sovereign countries, originally part of the British Empire (protectorates, colonies, dominions like Australia, New Zealand, Canada). Idea traced to 1839 Durham report. Modern Commonwealth began 1947 with India's independence. India and Pakistan joined 1949.

Structure:

Secretariat in London (day-to-day operations, meetings). Head of Commonwealth is British Monarch. Heads of State Summit meets every two years (political/economic issues). Ministerial meetings every three years. Specialized agencies.

Membership:

54 developed and developing nations categorized as Britain/Dominions, African, Asian, Caribbean/Pacific/Mediterranean islands.

Characteristics:

• Common language (English), cultural ties (Commonwealth Games), cooperation in education, recognition of British monarch as head, common military tradition (British system), shared democratic institutions (parliamentary system), similar constitutions.

Objectives:

• Promote world peace/understanding, promote development of poor members, intensify cooperation (education, sport, economic), ensure personal liberty/equality regardless of race/color/creed/political beliefs, oppose colonial dominion/promote human dignity/self-determination/non-racism, promote knowledge/professionalism/cultural/economic/legal/political exchange, fight poverty/ignorance/disease, enhance free international trade.

Organization:

• Head of State Summit (supreme, biennial), Ministerial Meetings (regular), Commonwealth Secretariat (coordinates cooperation, headed by Secretary-General), Specialized Agencies (e.g., Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-Operation, Agricultural Bureau, Parliamentary Association, Regional Health Secretariat).

Benefits of Membership:

• Technical expertise, skilled manpower (scholarships/training), interaction (Games, cultural exchange), easier trade, friendship/understanding, enhanced democratization.

Problems:

• Differences in economic development levels.
• Ideological disputes.
• Lack of sufficient funds.
• Problem of sovereignty (members disregard resolutions for national interests).
• Lacks effective machinery/standing army.
• Loyalty to other organizations.
• Colonial legacy problems (e.g., Zimbabwe land issue).
• Influence of other organizations (e.g., NATO).
• Race/color problems.
• Dominance by big powers.

Structure/Organization:

No formal structures (secretariat, constitution) like UN or Commonwealth.

• Coordination: Non-hierarchical, rotational, inclusive. Host country holds office until next summit. Host designates foreign affairs section for NAM. UN Ambassador functions as 'minister of Non-Aligned Affairs'.
• Contact Groups, Task Forces, Committees: Facilitate chair's responsibility (e.g., working groups for UN restructuring, human rights, disarmament; Committees on Palestine, Cyprus; Task Force on Somalia).
• Non-Aligned Security Caucus: Countries strive for unified positions in Security Council.
• Joint Coordinating Committee: Promotes cooperation between NAM and G77 for developing countries' interests in international fora.
• Coordination in UN centers: Facilitates cooperation with Coordinating Bureau.
• The Troika: Meeting of past, present, and future chairs (emerged 1997) for discussion.
• Panel of Economists: Ad hoc panel to assess international economic situation from developing countries' perspective.
• Documentation: Host country's responsibility after consultation.
• Decision-making: By consensus, respecting different points of view, promoting solidarity.

Meetings:

• Conference of Heads of State and Government: Highest decision-making authority, meets every three years, has political and economic/social committees.
• Ministerial Conference: Reviews developments, implements summit decisions, discusses urgent matters, meets 18 months after summit.
• Ministerial Meeting in New York: Annually during UN General Assembly session, discusses agenda items important to movement.
• Ministerial Meeting of the Coordinating Bureau: Prepares for summits, considers major issues.
• Meeting of Ministerial Committee on Methodology: All members, by summit/ministerial conference decision, chaired by NAM chair.
• Meeting of Standing Ministerial Committee on Economic Cooperation: Strengthens South-South cooperation, reactivates North-South dialogue, enhances UN General Assembly role in development, frequent meetings.
• Ministerial Meetings in various fields: Discuss agriculture, information, external debt.
• Extraordinary Meetings of Coordinating Bureau: Address urgent cases.
• Meetings of Working Groups, Task Forces, Contact Groups, Committees: As often as necessary.

Growth of NAM (Conferences):

• Established after Bandung Conference of 1955.
• 1st Summit: Belgrade, 1961 (25 countries, prevent nuclear war).
• 2nd Summit: Cairo, 1964 (47 nations, problems from colonial inheritance/great power rivalry).
• 3rd Summit: Lusaka, 1970 (53 members, peace, independence, cooperation, democratization, fight colonialism/racism, economic emancipation).
• 4th Summit: Algiers, 1973 (75 members, transform economic/financial relations, liberate developing countries).
• 5th Summit: Colombo, 1976 (86 members, liberation of Zimbabwe/Namibia, abolish apartheid).
• 6th Summit: Havana, 1979 (93 members, declared imperialism, colonialism, neo colonialism, apartheid, racism, foreign aggression, etc., as enemies of non alignment).
• 7th Summit: New Delhi, 1983 (96 members, confrontation/nuclear weapons, peace, nuclear disarmament, North-South dialogue, South-South cooperation).
• 8th Summit: Harare, 1986 (Silver Jubilee, Namibia independence, apartheid, sanctions against Pretoria, solidarity fund for frontline states).
• Subsequent Summits: Belgrade 1989, Jakarta 1992, Cartagena de Indias 1995, Durban 1998, Kuala Lumpur 2003.

Performance/Relevance:

Still relevant despite dismantling apartheid and end of Cold War.

• Articulates voice of justice/sanity in unending arms race.
• Forum for demand for less unjust world economic order.
• Third world's shield against superpower pressures.
• Addresses emerging issues (terrorism, environmental degradation, HIV/AIDS, racism).

Achievements:

• Sped up freedom in colonial states.
• Assisted members in safeguarding national security/territorial integrity.
• Eliminated conflict between superpowers, promoted peace (India's role in Korean War, Suez Crisis, Indo-Chinese conflict).
• Created conducive environment for peace, justice, equality, international cooperation by staying clear of military blocs.
• Strengthened African/Asian countries diplomatically.
• Provided international forum for members' voices, helped dismantle apartheid.
• Gave members freedom to prioritize national interests.
• Key role in disarmament process (Cairo/Colombo Summits, 1967 Treaty of Tlatelolco for Latin America Free Zone).
• Helped in international crisis management (e.g., Berlin Crisis 1961, leaders mediating).
• Worked towards new international economic order (trade with both blocs, membership in G77 in UNCTAD).
• Solidarity fund (Harare 1986) cushioned frontline states against sanctions on South Africa.
• Worked to create new scientific/technological order (access to advanced tech/research).

Factors Undermining Activities:

• Political instability in member states (civil wars, coups, interstate wars).
• Economic ties to colonial masters hindered independent policies.
• Border disputes between members.
• Economic backwardness of some members hindered obligations.
• Ideological differences (large size, West/East inclinations).
• Membership in other organizations (AU, Commonwealth, French community) reduced active participation.
• Breakup of Soviet Union/end of Cold War reduced relevance.
• Conflicting national interests.
• Personality differences among leaders (e.g., Fidel Castro's radical views).
• Differences unrelated to NAM principles (e.g., Egypt-Israel treaty).
• Lacks permanent army/institutional framework (failed to end Iran-Iraq war).

Definition: Strained relations between Western world (led by USA) and Communist East (led by USSR) after WWII. Called "cold" because it was fought with words, propaganda, military/financial aid, not direct weapons. Characterized by serious conflict without physical confrontation.

Causes:

• Ideological differences: Deep fear/suspicion between USA (capitalism) and USSR (communism). Soviet acquisition of satellite states aimed to contain capitalism.
• Disagreement over disarmament: USA's atomic bomb use alarmed USSR. Failure to agree on arms reduction led to atomic bomb stockpiling.
• Economic rivalry: USA's Marshall Plan (1947) to assist Western Europe; USSR's COMECON (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance) to counter it in Eastern Europe.
• Formation of military alliances: NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) formed April 1949 by USA, Western Europe, Canada. USSR responded with Warsaw Pact (May 1955) of communist countries.
• Use of Russian veto powers in UN: Russia used veto to defeat "pro-USA" UN proposals, increasing tension.
• Disagreement over Germany's future: Western allies wanted strong Germany; Russia wanted weak Germany to prevent invasion. The Berlin Wall built 1961.
• USA's military advancement: Sole possession of atomic weapons by USA in 1945 created fear.

Course of the Cold War (Europe, Asia, Latin America, Africa):

Europe:

• Russia's dominance of Eastern Europe, imposing communist governments (Poland, Romania).
• Fanning civil wars (e.g., Greek Civil War 1946).
• Violent outbreaks and demands for freedom in Poland/Romania based on Western ideologies.
• Communist Russia orchestrated protests in Czechoslovakia against Dubcek's reforms, installing a Russian ally.
• Truman Doctrine (March 1947): USA would support free people resisting subjugation (e.g., in Greece, Turkey).
• Marshall Plan (1947): US proposal for European economic recovery, rejected by USSR as interference.
• Stalin set up COMINFORM (Communist Information Bureau) and COMECON to counter Marshall Plan.
• NATO (April 1949) and Warsaw Pact (May 1955) intensified hostilities.
• Berlin Blockade (May 1948): Russia sealed roads/rail into West Berlin, leading to airlift of supplies for over two years; ended May 1949.
• Partition of Germany: West wanted free Germany; Russia wanted communist East Germany. Federal Republic of Germany (West) formed May 1949; German Democratic Republic (East) formed Oct 1949. Berlin Wall built Aug 1961.

Asia:

• China: Embraced communism Oct 1949 after Mao Tse-tung's takeover with Russian aid. Sino-Soviet Treaty of friendship signed 1950.
• Korea: Divided after Japan's defeat (South by USA, North by Russia). Independent Democratic Republic of Korea (South) formed 1948; Peoples Republic of Korea (North) formed 1948. North Korea invaded South Korea June 1950; UN (led by US General MacArthur) repulsed invaders.
• Vietnam: USSR/USA clashed over Vietnam (former French colony). Russians supported Ho Chi-Minh; USA supported Ngo Dinh Diem. Vietnam War erupted, costing Americans heavily (53,000 casualties, 400,000 troops), defeated by communist Viet Cong in 1975. War strengthened American hostility towards Russia.
• Afghanistan (1978-1989): Armed conflict, civil war. Moscow Olympic Games (1980) boycotted. Eased when USSR withdrew troops 1989.

Latin America (Cuban Missile Crisis):

• USA supported Cuban dictator Batista against Fidel Castro. Castro overthrew Batista (1958), recognized by USA/USSR.
• 1960: Castro began nationalizing American oil refineries/sugar plantations. USA attempted invasion at Bay of Pigs (1961). Cuba expelled from OAS (Jan 1962).
• May 1962: USSR (Nikita Khrushchev) secretly built missile installations in Cuba. Oct 1962: US President J. F. Kennedy discovered installations, declared any nuclear attack from Cuba as attack by USSR, imposed naval quarantine. Crisis ended when Khrushchev removed missiles/dismantled bases.

Africa:

• Ethiopia: Mengistu Haile-Mariam overthrew Emperor Haile Selassie (1974) with USSR aid, introduced socialist programs until 1991 when Russian aid withdrew.
• Angola: Gained independence from Portugal (Nov 1975) with Soviet/Cuban aid. Civil war broke out. USA supported Jonas Savimbi's UNITA; Cuba/Russia supported MPLA government. Democratic elections held 1989 as USSR eased aid.

Factors Leading to Cold War Détente:

• Death of Stalin (1953) and flexibility of successor Nikita Khrushchev (policy of peaceful coexistence 1956).
• Willingness of David Dwight Eisenhower (Truman's successor) to compromise (Camp David Summit 1959 with Khrushchev).
• Signing of Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT Treaty) in 1972 between USA and Russia, limiting strategic arms.
• Improvement of Chinese-American relations (1972) and American relations with Russia (Nixon visited Beijing/Moscow 1972).
• Introduction of reforms in Russia by Mikhail Gorbachev (1985): Glasnost (openness) and Perestroika (economic restructuring), winning Nobel Peace Prize 1990.
• Adoption of President Reagan's Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) "Star Wars" (1983), setting up space stations to destroy missiles.
• Collapse of Communist rule in Europe (1989): Russia recognized independence of other USSR republics, weakening its position. Western democracy introduced in Romania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Poland.
• Successful reunification of Germany (1990) under Helmut Kohl, indicating weakened superpower spheres of influence.
• Dissolution of Warsaw Pact (Nov 1990) with Paris Charter.
• Collapse of Soviet Union (1990): Several states seceded; Russia became aid receiver.
• Signing of START Treaty (1991) by Gorbachev and George Bush officially ended the Cold War, commencing destruction of WMDs.

Effects of the Cold War:

• Immense divisions/conflict based on pro-West/pro-East ideologies (e.g., Angola).
• Oppressive regimes came to power, supported by either side.
• Untold suffering (disease, poverty, refugee camps).
• Economic destruction (infrastructure destroyed, communist systems failed, unemployment/poverty).
• Mistrust and suspicion among nations.
• Led to arms race, militarization of regions.
• Political crises and actual wars (Korea, Vietnam, Suez Canal 1956, Hungarian Revolution 1956).
• Threatened international peace and security.
• Led to formation of Non-Aligned Movement.
• Led to formation of economic/military alliances (NATO, Warsaw Pact, COMECON, EEC).
• Stimulated development in science/technology (space race).

Effects of the End of Cold War on Africa:

• Problems for former socialist African countries (Somalia, Ethiopia, Angola, Mozambique) after USSR collapse.
• Removal of financial aid/military support (no more superpower competition, less aid for problems like Rwanda genocide, Somali crisis).
• Emergence of new world political/economic order (USA as "world policeman," forcing countries to act according to its wishes).
• Marginalization of Africa in international affairs.
• Conditionalities for aid from Western powers; less choice of donors.

Stimulated by: Economic exploitation and political domination by Western Europe.

Forms:

Pan-African Movement, OAU (later AU), East African Community, ECOWAS, COMESA.

Meaning: Belief in uniqueness/spiritual unity of Black people, right to self determination. Movement unifying all people of African descent worldwide for economic, political, social advancement. "Pan" means "all," "Africa" refers to continent, "Africanism" refers to those of African origin.

Origin/Development:

Roots in Trans-Atlantic slave trade (15th-19th c.), dispersal of blacks, common suffering fostering consciousness of shared destiny. Colonial experience (forced labor, land alienation, taxation, discrimination) further fueled it.

• Started as Pan Black Movement for American/Caribbean blacks. Pioneer figures: Martin Delaney, Alexander Cromwell, Booker T Washington, Marcus Moziah Garvey, Dr. William Edward Burghardt Du Bois, George Padmore (American/Caribbean); Kwegyir Aggrey, Wilmot Blyden, Kwame Nkrumah, Leopold Sedar Senghor (African).
• "Pan-Africanism" coined by Sylvester Williams (Trinidadian lawyer) at first Pan African meeting in London, 1900 (32 delegates from USA, Africa, Canada, West Indies, Britain).
• First Pan-African Congress for Africans held Manchester, England, 1945 (attended by Jomo Kenyatta).

Causes:

• Trans-Atlantic slave trade: Suffering under whites made Africans in Diaspora realize common destiny.
• Colonization of Africa: Division of Africa, divide-and-rule tactics fostered need for common ground for change.
• Need to correct negative European ideas about Africa/Africans: Belief in African inferiority.
• Fight against Racism: Africans despised/ridiculed based on color/hair.
• Evolution of educated African leadership: Nkrumah, Senghor, Kenyatta, Blyden wanted to prove African civilization/history/culture.
• European missionaries discriminated against Africans, leading to independent churches.

Objectives:

• Unite all people of African origin for emancipation from social discrimination/colonial rule.
• Challenge white supremacy ideology of colonization.
• Improve African living conditions (Diaspora and Africa).
• Secure democratic rights for all Africans (vote, political associations).
• Restore dignity of black people, liberate from slavery.
• Create forum for protests against European colonization/racial discrimination.
• Find better ways to establish relations between Europeans and Africans, and among Africans.
• Appeal to missions/humanitarians to protect Africans against colonial aggression/exploitation/land alienation.
• Fight neo-colonialism.

Leading Pan-Africanists:

• Marcus Garvey (1887-1940): Jamaican, shaped philosophy by witnessing discrimination. Advocated pride in blackness, cultural heritage. Founded Negro Empire (New York 1920), Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) (objectives: fraternity, uplift civilization, central nation, academies, promote cultures). Founded "The Negro World," African Orthodox Church. Advocated return to Africa, economic empowerment. Founded Black Starline Shopping Company (collapsed, arrested for fraud, deported, died 1940). Credited for mobilizing pride in culture/complexion.
• Booker T. Washington (1856-1915): American, promoted African education. Started Tuskegee Institute (agricultural/industrial skills for blacks). Advocated cooperation with government for acceptance, gaining wealth for equality. Founded National Negro Business League.
• Dr. William Edward Burghardt Du Bois (1868-1963): First black PhD, professor of History/Economics/Sociology, journalist. Disagreed with Washington's accommodation policy. Established Niagara Movement (1905) against racial discrimination. Founder of NAACP (1909) for Negro civil rights. Prepared Pan African conferences (1900-1945) against slavery/colonial exploitation. Chaired Manchester Conference 1945. Relocated to Ghana 1961, died 1963.

Pan-African Congresses (1900-1945):

• 1st Pan-African Conference, London, 1900: Sylvester Williams coined "Pan Africanism." Du Bois stated "The problem of the 20th c is the problem of colourline." Objectives: unite African origin people, end exploitation, better relations with Caucasians, secure rights, promote economic rights, appeal to missionaries/philanthropists. Agenda: human rights violations, living conditions, racial discrimination. Sent memorandum to Queen of England.
• 2nd Pan-African Conference, Paris, 1919: Convened by Du Bois. Recommendations: international laws to protect blacks, African land held in trust, prevent exploitation, right to education, abolish slavery/capital punishment, right to participate in government.
• 3rd Pan-African Conference, 1921 (London, Brussels, Paris): Demanded political organizations for suppressed blacks, emphasized international/interracial harmony/democracy.
• 4th Pan-African Congress (London and Lisbon 1923): Reiterated earlier resolutions, demanded humane treatment.
• 5th Pan-African Conference, New York 1927: Discussed communist attitude towards pan-Africanism.
• 6th Pan-African Conference, Manchester, 1945: Coincided with WWII end. Convened by Pan African Federation. Inspired by Ethiopia's liberation and Atlantic Charter's Clause 3 (self-determination, though Churchill claimed it not applicable to Africans). Attended by 90 delegates (Du Bois, Nkrumah, Kenyatta, Padmore, etc.). Du Bois chaired, Nkrumah/Padmore joint secretaries.
  • Uniqueness of Manchester Conference: Primarily organized by Africans from the continent (except Du Bois, Padmore), no white philanthropists/funding, many African trade unions represented.
  • Key Resolutions: Africans to win political power through non-violent means (strikes, boycotts), intellectuals to mobilize masses for liberation.
  • Kwame Nkrumah established West African National Secretariat (WANS) to promote unity in West Africa.
  • Landmark in African History (Reasons): First time leading African representatives from continent attended (Kenyatta, Nkrumah, Banda); strongly condemned colonization, demanded autonomy; set pace for Ghana (1957) and Egypt independence; fostered solidarity/unity for OAU formation; marked movement's activities in Africa.

Why Pan-African Movement not Active in Africa before 1945:

• Lack of adequate African representation (few Africans outside Africa as exiles/students).
• Colonial authorities outlawed anti-colonial movements.
• "Divide and rule" policy hindered communication/cooperation.
• Africans focused on local issues (land, forced labor, taxation).
• Independent countries (Liberia, Ethiopia) had internal problems, little attention to international matters.
• Lack of venue in Africa due to colonial government prohibition.
• Poor transport/communication hindered spread.
• Few educated people, widespread illiteracy/ignorance.
• Africans too poor to contribute.

Role of Kwame Nkrumah in Pan-Africanism:

• Participated in 1945 Manchester Conference (secretary), proposed delegates spearhead nationalist struggle.
• Established West African National Secretariat (WANS).
• Founded Convention People’s Party (CPP), led Ghana to independence 1957.
• Inspired other African countries to fight for independence and black civil rights in USA.
• Hosted first Pan-African Conference of Independent States in Accra (1958), pledged assistance for political independence.
• Funded nationalists (e.g., Ghana, Algeria).
• Supported African leaders facing political threats (e.g., Sekou Toure of Guinea).
• Championed trade unionism in Africa; allowed trade union participation at Manchester Conference.
• Participated in convening conferences leading to OAU formation.
• Overthrown in 1966, died 1972.

Why Pan-African Movement Became Active in Africa After 1945:

• WWII strengthened nationalism, boosted by UN, USA, USSR support.
• 1945 Manchester Conference brought African elites together, who inspired colleagues back home.
• Independence of India (1947) and Burma (1948) encouraged African nationalists.
• Slowing of pan-Africanism in America during Cold War activated it in Africa (USA tried to control figures like Padmore with USSR links).
• Ghana's independence (1957) inspired focus on liberation of respective countries.

Achievements of Pan-Africanism:

• Created political awareness and concern for suffering of blacks.
• Restored status and dignity to African people.
• Provided forum for discussing problems, promoted brotherhood.
• Developed spirit of solidarity among Africans.
• Laid basis for OAU (later AU) formation.
• Enabled African leaders to be more committed to African issues (e.g., black caucus pressuring US Congress on apartheid).
• Laid foundation for research on African culture, history, literature, etc., empowering Africans.
• Advanced African nationalism by encouraging pride in ancestry, demanding rights.
• Condemned Mussolini's attempt to colonize Ethiopia (1935).

Challenges Encountered:

• European groups fought pan-Africanist activities (e.g., Garvey's arrest).
• Difficulty for Africans to participate due to colonialism.
• Lack of economic empowerment/education led to failure of projects (e.g., Garvey's).
• Illiteracy/ignorance hindered constructive support.
• Movement restricted to Africa after 1960s independence, absence of African Americans.
• Division among Africans post-independence (radical/conservative, Francophone/Anglophone).
• European media domination used to spread negative propaganda.
• Disagreement among leaders on best strategy.
• Deep economic connection between colonies and mother countries hindered cooperation.
• Lack of venues in Africa before 1957; far-away venues inconvenient.

Activities after 1950:

• 1st Conference of Independent African States, Accra, April 1958 (8 independent states pledged assistance for liberation).
• All-African Peoples Conference, Accra, Dec 1958 (freedom fighters, trade unionists; chaired by Tom Mboya; resolved to use all means for independence, encourage unity).
• All-African Peoples Conference, Tunis, Jan 1960 (strengthened unity desire).
• 2nd Conference of Independent African States, Addis Ababa, June 1960 (forerunner to OAU, exposed divisions over Congo crisis).
• Brazzaville Conference, Dec 1960 (12 Francophone states; respect frontiers, non interference, support Mauritania).
• Casablanca Conference, Jan 1961 (radical reaction to Brazzaville, supported Morocco, advocated removal of foreign troops from Congo).
• Monrovia Conference, May 1961 (moderates/conservatives; emphasized equality of states; united groups after Algerian referendum and Congo stabilization).

Definition: Association of independent African states (1963-2002), renamed African Union (AU).

Origin/Development:

Climax of Pan-Africanism congresses. Preceded by regional groupings (Casablanca Jan 1961, Monrovia May 1961, Brazzaville Aug 1961) which compromised to form one organization. Formed May 1963 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, with 32 members; Emperor Haile Selassie was first chairperson. Membership grew to 54. Morocco withdrew when Saharan Arab Democratic Republic admitted 1984.

Objectives:

• Permanent organization to discuss/solve issues.
• Provide identity for newly independent African countries.
• Coordinate/assist decolonization of rest of Africa.
• Improve living standards of African people.
• Defend independence/maintain sovereignty of African states.
• Promote cooperation (economic, social, political).
• Promote/enhance African solidarity and unity.
• Support world peace organizations (UN, NAM).
• Promote peaceful settlement of disputes.
• Promote non-interference in internal matters.

Fundamental Principles (Charter):

Sovereign equality of member states, non interference in internal affairs, respect for sovereign/territorial integrity, peaceful settlement of disputes, condemnation of political assassination/subversion, dedication to emancipation of colonial territories, adherence to non-alignment.

Structure:

Heavily borrowed from UN Charter; no veto powers, equal privileges/votes for all members.

• Assembly of Heads of State and Government: Supreme organ, met yearly, elected chairperson, two-thirds majority for critical issues.
• Council of Ministers: Foreign ministers, met twice yearly, prepared agenda for Assembly, implemented decisions, prepared budget.
• General Secretariat: Headed by Secretary-General, administrative services.
• Commission of Mediation, Conciliation and Arbitration: Settled disputes, 21 states, 5-year term.
• Specialized Agencies/Committees: Handled technical business (e.g., OAU Liberation Committee, Economic/Social Commission, Education/Science/Culture Commission, Defence Commission, Supreme Council of Sports).

Achievements:

• Solved border disputes (Kenya vs. Somalia, Ethiopia vs. Somalia, Libya vs. Chad, etc.).
• Achieved total liberation of African countries (South Africa last), offered military support for nationalist struggles.
• Condemned human rights violations (Namibia, South Africa), encouraged sanctions against apartheid.
• African governments spoke with one voice, attempted common foreign policy.
• Provided forum for discussing common problems (desertification, foreign interference, dependency), sought solutions.
• Embarked on common economic ventures (e.g., African Development Bank - ADB).
• Encouraged construction of roads/railways (Tanzam, Great North Road, Trans African Highway) for economic cooperation.
• Created cultural identity (sports, All-African Games).
• Addressed refugee problem (e.g., Rwanda, Burundi, Sudan, Somalia).
• Instrumental in forming regional organizations (ECOWAS, SADDC, COMESA).

Problems:

• Differences in economic development levels and history.
• Ideological differences (Cold War era).
• Lacked sufficient funds (members were poor third-world countries).
• Problem of sovereignty (members disregarded OAU resolutions for national interests).
• Lacked effective machinery to effect decisions, no standing army ("Toothless Bulldog" by Gadaffi).
• Loyalty to other organizations (ECOWAS, COMESA, Arab League).
• Colonial legacy problems (Zimbabwe land issue, Neo-Colonialism).
• Interference by big powers.
• Emergence of dictators (Amin Dada, Bokassa, Mobutu).
• Civil strife in various countries remained unresolved (Sudan, Rwanda, Ethiopia, Nigeria).

Origin: Sirte Declaration (Libya, Sept 1999) called for AU and Pan-African Parliament. Document for AU/Parliament adopted May 2000. Constitutive Act adopted June 2000 in Lome, Togo. AU born 2002 at Durban Summit, South Africa.

Differences between OAU and AU:

• Non-interference: AU challenges non-interference, allows intervention in conflicts/human rights violations.
• Nature: OAU was association of Heads of State; AU is a Union of African Peoples (increased participation via proposed Pan-African Parliament, economic/social/cultural council).
• Accountability: AU has African Peer Review Mechanism (APRM) for accountability on security, development, stability, cooperation.
• Development Plan: AU has broader development plan (NEPAD - New Partnership for Africa's Development) to promote growth, eradicate poverty, halt marginalization.
• Security/Justice: AU presupposes security council and African Court of Justice with law enforcement powers (standing military).

Objectives of AU:

• Accelerate political, social, economic integration.
• Promote/defend African common positions.
• Defend independence/territorial integrity, maintain sovereignty.
• Promote democratic principles, popular participation, good governance.
• Establish conditions for continent to play rightful global role.
• Promote cooperation (economic, social, political) to improve living standards.
• Achieve/enhance greater African solidarity and unity.
• Promote peace, security, stability through peaceful dispute settlement.
• Advance development by promoting research (science/technology).
• Encourage international cooperation (UN Charter, Universal Declaration of Human Rights).
• Work with international partners to eradicate preventable diseases, promote good health.

Structure:

• The Assembly: Supreme organ, meets yearly, elects chairperson, determines common policies, monitors implementation, appoints/terminates judges. Decisions by consensus or two-thirds majority.
• The Executive Council: Foreign Ministers/designated authorities. Coordinates union policies (foreign trade, energy, industry, water, environment). Can delegate functions to specialized technical committees.
• The Commission/Secretariat: Chairperson, deputy, eight commissioners, staff. Deals with administrative issues, implements decisions.
• The Permanent Representatives Committee: Ambassadors to AU. Prepares for Executive Council, runs association daily, seats permanently in Addis Ababa.
• Specialized Committees and Agencies: Handle technical business (e.g., Rural Economy/Agricultural Matters, Monetary/Financial Affairs, Trade/Customs/Immigrations, Transport/Communication, Education/Human Resource/Culture, Health/Labour/Social Affairs).
• The Economic and Social Council: Advisory functions.
• Specialized Technical Committees: Prepare projects, supervise/follow-up implementation, coordinate/harmonize projects, submit reports.
• Other Proposed Structures (not yet in place): Peace and Security Council (15 members, monitor/intervene conflicts), Pan-African Parliament (civil society participation), Court of Justice (human rights abuses), Financial Institutions (African Central Bank, Monetary Fund, Investment Bank).

Founded: June 6, 1967, comprising Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania.

Origin:

Traced back to 1902 British/German colonial efforts for unified administration (e.g., East African Court of Appeal 1902, Postal Union 1911, Customs Union 1917, Currency Board 1920, High Commission 1948). East African High Commission replaced by East African Common Services Organization (1961). Treaty to establish EAC signed June 6, 1967, in force Dec 1, 1967.

Objectives:

• Maintain common market, promote balanced economic cooperation.
• Provide common services (transport, communication).
• Promote political cooperation, peace, security.
• Facilitate movement of people for cooperation/understanding.
• Expand market in low population/income region.

Challenges (up to 1977):

• Suspicion over perceived Kenyan dominance (Kenya gained most benefits, industries protected more).
• Personality differences among leaders.
• Ideological differences (Kenya capitalism, Tanzania socialism, Uganda mixed).
• Political instability in Uganda (Idi Amin's coup, Nyerere's refusal to recognize Amin).
• National pride/interests prioritized over regional (e.g., Tanzania favored railway, Kenya favored road).
• Boundary closures (Tanzania-Kenya 1977, Tanzania-Uganda 1978).
• Financial constraints (member states failed to remit funds).
• Use of different currencies.

Rebirth of EAC (2001):

• Reasons: Need for common market/economic cooperation, common services (transport/communication/research), political cooperation in a globalized world, free movement of people, lessons learned from past collapse losses.
• Milestones: March 1996: Secretariat of Permanent Tripartite Commission launched. Nov 1996: East African Business Council agreement signed. April 1997: First EAC Cooperation development strategy launched. April 1998: Treaty for EAC establishment launched. Nov 1998: First ministerial meeting on Lake Victoria hyacinth. Jan 1999: Third summit directed treaty completion. Nov 30, 1999: Treaty establishing EAC-2001 signed.

Structure of New EAC:

• The Summit of Heads of State: Supreme organ, provides direction, rotational chair.
• The Council of Ministers: Main decision-making, designated ministers.
• The Coordinating Committee: Permanent secretaries, reports to Council, coordinates sectoral committees.
• The Sectoral Committees: Created by Council on recommendation of coordinating committee.
• The East African Legislative Assembly: Democratic forum for debate, watchdog. 30 members from member states.
• The Secretariat: Based in Arusha, day-to-day administrative duties.
• The Court of Justice of East Africa: Highest appellate court.
• Other Autonomous Institutions: East African Development Bank (EADB), Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization (LVFO), Inter-University Council for East Africa (IUCEA).

Challenges (EAC-2001):

• Suspicion over perceived Kenyan dominance persists.
• Tanzania customs still tax Kenyan products despite treaty.
• Increased cross-border smuggling (arms, crime).
• Cattle rustling across borders (Kenya-Uganda).
• Arrest of Kenyan fishermen on Lake Victoria by Tanzanian/Ugandan police.
• Membership in other regional bodies (COMESA, SADDC) complicates work.
• Recent wrangles over Migingo Island (Kenya-Uganda).
• Use of different currencies complicates transactions.
• Political squabbles in individual countries slow progress.
• Individual national interests slow implementation (e.g., proposed taxes on imports).

Achievements (EAC-2001):

• Boosted movement of citizens, introduced East African passport.
• Provided forum for harmonious discussion among leaders.
• Improved/expanded transport and communication networks.
• Reduced tariffs for industrial goods.
• Eased investment procedures.
• Enhanced civil society cooperation (Law Society of East Africa, Business Council).
• Promoted trade among member states.

Formation: Regional group of 15 West African countries. Treaty signed in Lagos, Nigeria on May 28, 1975, by Gambia, Mali, Cape Verde, Burkina Faso, Niger, Benin, Togo, Cote d’Ivoire, Sierra Leone, Ghana, Senegal, Guinea-Bissau, Nigeria, Guinea.

Objectives:

• Economic cooperation in specialized fields (transport, communication, agriculture, trade, industry).
• Liberalize trade.
• Improve relations.
• Improve living standards.
• Create customs union.
• Promote industrial development.
• Promote cultural interaction.

Organization:

• Authority of Heads of State and Government: Meets yearly, rotational chair.
• Council of Ministers: Designated ministers, meets twice yearly, manages community affairs.
• The Tribunal: Industrial court, settles disputes.
• The Executive Secretariat: Based in Lagos, day-to-day administrative duties.
• Specialized commissions and Agencies: (e.g., Industry/Natural Resources/Agricultural Matters, Trade/Customs/Immigrations, Transport/Communication, Culture/Social Affairs).

Achievements:

• Defence Act (1981) provided military support; ECOMOG quelled civil wars in Liberia, Sierra Leone.
• Economic benefits (e.g., Nigeria provides oil at reduced price).
• Enabled regular meetings of Heads of State.
• Socio-cultural exchanges promoted good relations.
• Improved transport, trade, agriculture, communication.
• Resolved political problems.
• Free movement of citizens (waiver of visa requirements).
• Progress in education (Joint examination Syllabus).

Challenges:

• Political instability in member states (coups, civil wars).
• Nationalistic issues (prioritizing domestic issues).
• Language barrier (inherited colonial languages).
• Infrastructural problems (poor roads, railway, communication).
• Ideological differences leading to suspicion/mistrust.
• Lack of uniform currency.
• Foreign interference.
• Border closures.

Establishment: Economic organization of 19 states, established Dec 8, 1994, replacing the Preferential Trade Area.

Aims and Objectives:

• Attain sustainable growth/development by promoting balanced production/marketing.
• Cooperate in economic activity and joint adoption of macro-economic policies.
• Cooperate in promoting peace, security, stability for economic development.
• Cooperate in creating enabling environment for investment.
• Cooperate in strengthening relations with rest of world.
• Contribute to establishment/realization of African Economic Community.

Principles:

Equality/interdependence, solidarity/collective self-reliance, inter-state cooperation, non-aggression, recognition/promotion/protection of human rights, accountability/economic justice/popular participation, rule of law, democratic governance, regional peace/stability, peaceful dispute settlement, cooperation between neighbors.

Organization:

• Authority of Heads of State and Government: Supreme policy-making organ, meets yearly.
• The Council of Ministers: Designated ministers, meets yearly, manages community affairs, monitors functioning.
• The Court of Justice: Interprets/applies treaty, settles disputes (e.g., Kenya-Egypt cement dispute).
• The Committee of Governors of Central Banks: Manages COMESA clearing house, implements monetary/financial cooperation.
• The Inter-Governmental Committee: Permanent secretaries, develops/manages programs.
• The Secretariat: Based in Lusaka, technical support/advisory services, coordinates activities. Secretary General: Erastus Mwencha since 1997.
• The Technical Committees: (e.g., Natural Resources/Environment, Agricultural Matters, Trade/Customs/Immigrations, Transport/Communication, Labour/Culture/Social Affairs).
• The Consultative Committee: Business community/stakeholders, links business/COMESA, monitors treaty implementation, consults groups, participates in technical committees.
• Specialized independent institutions: Eastern and Southern African Trade and Development Bank (PTA Bank), PTA reinsurance company, COMESA clearing house, COMESA association of Commercial Banks, COMESA leather institute.

Achievements:

• Wide, harmonized, competitive market for internal/external trade.
• Rational exploitation of natural resources.
• Harmonized monetary, banking, financial policies.
• Improved transport/communication administration.
• Cooperation in promoting peace, security, stability.
• Strengthened relations with rest of world, common position in international fora.
• Authority of Heads of State directs/controls common market.
• Customs cooperation (unified computerized customs network), harmonization of macro-economic/monetary policies.
• Increased industrial productivity/competitiveness.
• Encouraged good governance, accountability, human rights (e.g., for Burundi/Rwanda admission).
• Contributed to employment.
• Promoted increased agricultural production/natural resource exploitation.
• Ensured more efficient/reliable transport/communication infrastructure.

Challenges:

• Membership in other bodies (EAC, SADC) leading to divided loyalty.
• Personality differences (e.g., Museveni-El Bashir).
• Boundary conflicts (Ethiopia-Eritrea).
• Civil wars (DRC, Uganda, Sudan, Rwanda, Burundi) undermine operations.
• Constant quarrels over trading rights (e.g., Kenya-Egypt cement dispute).
• Poor transport between member states.
• Pulling out of Tanzania and Namibia (opted for SADC) undermined COMESA.
• Some members undermine neighbors (e.g., Uganda/Rwanda accused in DRC civil wars).

• Poor transport and communication.
• Uneven distribution of resources.
• Budgetary deficit and balance of payment problems (lack of foreign exchange).
• Constant political interference by unenlightened leaders.
• Rivalry among member states.
• Poor share from world trade (low prices for raw materials, high prices for manufactured goods).
• Population pressure (overstretching social services, high dependency ratio).
• Poor economic planning (e.g., Ujamaa in Tanzania, expelling foreign investors in Uganda, money printing in Zaire).
• Tough conditions from donor agencies (e.g., retrenchment from SAPs).
• Corruption and embezzlement of public funds, lack of transparency.
• Inability of member states to interfere in internal affairs when needed.
• Failure by member states to contribute fully to organizations.
• Colonial legacy (heavy dependence on West for goods, machinery, technology, ideas).

African Socialism:

• Meaning/Origin: Defined by Sessional Paper No. 10 of 1965 as an "African political, economic system that is positively African, and capable of incorporating useful and compatible techniques from whatever source". Born from desire to create new society with equity, devoid of racism, oppression.
• Main Features:
  • Political Democracy (all free and equal).
  • Various forms of wealth ownership (free enterprise, nationalization, partnership).
  • Mutual social responsibility (service, not greed).
  • Range of control to ensure property used for mutual interest.
  • Progressive taxation for equitable wealth/income distribution.
  • Diffusion of ownership to avoid economic power concentration.
• Achievements:
  • Promotion of democratic process (multi-partism, civil society growth).
  • Promoted African cultures (built on traditions).
  • Promoted national unity/coexistence.
  • Greater effort for fairness/justice (progressive taxation, resource distribution via District Focus for Rural Development).
  • Establishment of cooperative societies (social/economic development).
  • Promoted agricultural development (land tenure, settlement schemes).
  • Achieved social development in education/health (no discrimination, uniform systems).
  • Gave Africans right to participate in economy (Africanization of industries).
  • Encouraged rapid development (mutual social responsibility, self-help, patriotism).
• Problems:
  • Progressive taxation burdens the poor, discouraging development.
  • Political interference/wrangles retard development.
  • Spirit of unity/cooperation/self-help discouraged by misappropriation of funds.
  • Corruption leads to negative attitude towards national development contributions.

Harambee Philosophy:

• Meaning/Origin: Kiswahili for "pulling together" or "working together." Development strategy where people supplement government efforts through voluntary contribution. Mzee Jomo Kenyatta made it a national motto in 1963, symbolizing unity in national integrity/human progress. Embodies ideals of assistance, joint effort, mutual social responsibility, community self-reliance.
• Project Categories: Social (education, medical, recreational, religious institutions); Economic (rural roads, bridges, culverts, agriculture, livestock).
• Principles:
  • Mobilizing people at local level for development.
  • Collective good, not individual gain.
  • Project choice guided by majority needs, participant involvement in decision-making.
  • Maximum utilization of local resources (labor, materials, money).
• Contribution to Kenya's Development:
  • Education development (schools, colleges construction).
  • Improved infrastructure (roads, rural electrification, water).
  • Promoted national unity through collective participation.
  • Inculcated hard work, encouraged ethnic groups to develop areas.
  • Attracted foreign donors (NGOs).
  • Redistribution of resources (wealthy participating in less developed areas).
  • Aided less fortunate (e.g., KSH 70M raised for disabled).
  • Promoted agricultural development (cattle dips, farm purchases).
  • Purchased buses/Matatus for transport.
• Promoted Education in Kenya (Ways):
  • Many institutions constructed, increasing school attendance.
  • Assisted needy students with fees.
  • Physical facilities constructed/improved, creating conducive learning environment.
  • Teaching/learning materials purchased/donated.
  • Additional staff paid.
  • Supported co-curricular activities.
  • School furniture purchased.
  • Parents contributed to school feeding programs, improving enrollment.
• Problems:
  • Misuse/diversion of funds, lack of commitment.
  • Additional burden on the poor.
  • Embezzlement of public funds.
  • Political interference/wrangles.
  • Spirit of unity/self-help killed by misappropriation.
  • Poor coordination/supervision.
  • Use of force/extortion of funds.
  • Corruption and negative attitude.
  • Use for political gains.

Nyayoism:

• Meaning/Origin: Originally "footsteps" (following Kenyatta's). Coined by Daniel Arap Moi. Today means peace, love, and unity as development pillars. Stresses being mindful of others' welfare. Related to mutual social responsibility in African socialism.
• Sources: Sessional Paper No. 10 of 1965 (African socialism, collective responsibility, mindful of others). Biblical Ten Commandments (love for God, man, self). Moi's political career experience.
• Pillars:
  • Peace: Freedom from war/disorder, promotes development, discourages political instability.
  • Love: Brings trust, cooperation, fosters development, discourages disorder, encourages African communalism.
  • Unity: Being one, in harmony, in agreement on objectives/feelings. Necessary for nation-building despite diversity.
• Role in National Development:
  • Basis for solving national development problems, perpetuated Harambee spirit.
  • Unified different communities, enhanced cooperation.
  • Rallying spirit for collective contribution to development.
  • Discouraged societal evils (preached love, unity, peace, discouraged corruption).
  • Discouraged discrimination (religion, tribe, race, status).
  • Created respect for public property/functions.
  • Enabled creation of welfare state.
  • Created sense of nationalism/patriotism.

Impact of National Philosophies (General):

• Social Impact: Promoted education (Harambee schools/libraries), improved medical services, encouraged cooperation/understanding/unity, promoted spiritual/social welfare, addressed plight of disabled, promoted African cultures.
• Economic Impact: Promoted self-reliance/Africanization, formation of cooperative societies, improved transport/communication (Harambee roads, Nyayo buses), boosted agriculture, created conducive atmosphere for tourism/foreign investment.
• Political Impact: Promoted nationalism/patriotism, encouraged democratization (political equality), promoted international cooperation/understanding.

Inherited Political Problems:

• Lack of African technocrats, suspicion/jealousy between communities (divide-and-rule legacy), illiterate population ignorant of political obligations.

Political Developments (1963-1991):

• Dec 1963: Kenya independent under KANU (Jomo Kenyatta).
• 1964: KADU and APP voluntarily disbanded, Kenya became de facto one-party state. Abolition of Federal Constitution for Unitary/Republican. Post of executive president replaced PM.
• 1966 Limuru conference: Replaced KANU VP with seven Provincial VPs and one for Nairobi.
• April 1966: Oginga Odinga resigned from KANU/Government, formed Kenya People’s Union (KPU).
• 1966: Bicameral legislature disbanded for single-chamber parliament.
• 1966: Joseph Murumbi appointed VP, resigned 1967, Moi appointed.
• 1969: Political assassination of Tom Mboya. KPU banned after Kisumu riots.
• 1975: Josiah Mwangi Kariuki murdered.
• Oct 1975: Martin Shikuku/Jean Marie Seroney arrested/detained for claiming KANU/parliament dead.
• 1976: Chelagat Mutai jailed for incitement. 1977: George Anyona arrested for accusing government of corruption.
• 1976: "Change the constitution" campaign began to prevent Moi from succeeding Kenyatta.
• Aug 1978: Jomo Kenyatta died, Moi assumed presidency, later elected second president.
• July 1980: Moi banned tribal organizations, Kenya Civil Servants Union, Nairobi University Staff Union.
• June 1982: Section 2A introduced, making Kenya de jure one-party state.
• Aug 1982: Coup d'état attempt by air force servicemen. Charles Njonjo accused.
• 1988: KANU introduced "Queue voting" (mlolongo), prone to abuse.
• Feb 1990: Dr. Robert Ouko murdered.
• 1991: Tribal clashes (Kalenjin/Kikuyu, Kalenjin/Luhyia, Luos).

Kenya's Political Developments (1991-2011):

• Dec 1991: Parliamentary act repealed one-party provisions, established multi party system. FORD formed.
• Aug 1992: Masinde Muliro (FORD leader) died mysteriously.
• Dec 1992: First multi-party elections, KANU won against disjointed opposition.
• 1994: Jaramogi Oginga Odinga (official opposition leader) died.
• After 1997 elections: Inter-Parliamentary Parties Group (IPPG) passed reforms, beginning constitutional review.
• 2002: Opposition coalition overwhelmingly defeated KANU.
• Jan 2003: National Rainbow Coalition formed government, Mwai Kibaki president.
• Aug 2003: Wamalwa Kijana (VP) died, Moody Awori appointed.
• 2005: Orange Democratic Movement (ODM) formed against proposed new constitution (Raila Odinga leader).
• 2007 General Elections: Political crisis, unprecedented violence/killings.
• Feb 2008: Kofi Annan brokered power-sharing deal (Kibaki-Odinga), ending violence.
• April 2008: Raila Odinga sworn as Prime Minister.
• Aug 28, 2010: Kenya promulgated a new constitution, first independent African state to depart from independence constitution.
• 2011: ICC began proceedings against Uhuru Kenyatta, William Ruto, Hussein Ali, Henry Kosgei, Francis Muthaura, Joshua Arap Sang over 2008 post-election violence.
• June 2011: Dr. Willy Mutunga became first Chief Justice under new constitution, Nancy Makokha Barasa deputy.
• Electoral Commission of Kenya (ECK) replaced by Independent Elections and Boundaries Commission (IEBC).

Constitutional Changes (1963-1991):

• 1960 Lancaster House Conference: Interim constitution, no substantial autonomy.
• 1962 Lancaster Conference: Framework for self-government.
• 1963 Final Lancaster Conference: Drafting/adoption of Kenya's first independent Constitution by British Parliament. Transformed colony into dominion, established parliamentary system with cabinet headed by PM.
• 1964: Constitution changed, Kenya became republic, executive presidential. Senate and regions abolished.
• 1966: Voting majority for constitutional change lowered to two-thirds MPs. "Region" replaced with "province".
• 1966: Abolished Bicameral Legislature for Unicameral.
• April 1966: Amendment to compel defecting MPs to resign/seek re-election.
• May 1966: Public Security Act passed, empowering president to detain citizens without trial for state security threats.
• 1968: President empowered to alter provincial/district boundaries.
• 1968: Procedure for presidential elections/succession laid down. Age qualification lowered to 35.
• 1974: Amendment empowered president to pardon election offenders (to favor Paul Ngei).
• 1975: Kiswahili declared national language of National Assembly. *88: Security of tenure removed for Puisne Judges and Public Service Commission Chairman.
• Dec 1991: Parliamentary act repealed one-party system, established multiparty system.

Steps Towards New Constitution (since 1997):

• 1997: Parliament passed Constitution of Kenya Review Act, establishing Constitution of Kenya Review Commission (CKRC) for civic education, public input, draft constitution.
• 2005: Draft constitution rejected in referendum due to stakeholder disagreements.
• Feb 2008: National Accord and Reconciliation Act (NARA) signed, setting new process to finalize constitution.
• 2008: Constitution of Kenya Review Act 2008 passed, Committee of Experts (CoE) established as technical review organ (chaired by Nzamba Kitonga).
• Feb 2009: CoE members appointed.
• Nov 2009: CoE released draft for public views.
• Feb 2010: CoE submitted final draft to Parliamentary Select Committee.
• Aug 4, 2010: Constitutional Referendum held, new constitution overwhelmingly endorsed.
• Aug 28, 2010: New constitution promulgated, becoming operational.

Multi-Party Democracy in Kenya (since 1991):

• Factors Leading to Development:
  • International pressure from donors (post-USSR collapse, conditionalities for aid).
  • Developments in Eastern Europe (Gorbachev's reforms, replacement of dictatorships).
  • Rampant corruption (embezzlement, misappropriation of public funds, land grabbing) and punishment of critics.
  • Repeal of Section 2A of the constitution in December 1991.
• Role of Political Parties in Government/Nation Building:
  • Form government (majority seats/votes, alone or coalition).
  • Influence government affairs/development through legislation.
  • Decide national development policies/projects through elected MPs.
  • Provide exemplary leadership based on freedom, justice, African socialism.
  • Opposition parties scrutinize government expenditure (Public Accounts Committee, Public Investment Committee).
  • Opposition makes government accountable through criticism.
  • Opposition provides checks/balances against abuse of power.
• Challenges of Multi-Party Democracy:
  • Politicians incited supporters to remove opposition supporters (e.g., Rift Valley).
  • Executive/ruling party misused civil service to frustrate opposition (rigging).
  • Many parties failed to attain national outlook, tribal-based.
  • Defection of greedy politicians (bribes) weakened parties.
  • Former KANU retained control of government machinery (police, radio, TV) for its advantage.
  • Lack of government funding for most parties.
  • Interference by international community (diplomatic community siding with parties).
  • Parties embroiled in wrangles/desertions (e.g., ODM split).
• Disadvantages of Multi-Party System:
  • Divides people on tribal, regional, sectarian lines.
  • Sharpens struggle for personality/group dominance over policy.
  • Foreign system, not conforming to independent Africa's aspirations.
  • Encourages politics of destabilization.
  • Political statements deadlocks, tensions common.
  • Decisions take too long to make/implement.
  • Encourages violence (opposition seen as traitors, government as oppressors).

Economic Developments and Challenges (since independence):

• Stagnation of investment (capital transfer by white settlers), challenge of cultivating investor confidence.
• Landlessness among Africans (alienated arable land), urgent need for redistribution.
• Serious economic disparity (white highlands had amenities, rest lacked).
• Overpopulation in urban areas (rural-urban migration), pressure on facilities, unemployment.
• Control of economy by Europeans before/after independence (farm ownership, key industries).
• Lack of qualified manpower for technical sectors.
• These issues were addressed by Sessional Paper Number 10 of 1965.

Types of Landholding in Kenya:

• Land tenure: Terms/conditions for land acquisition, use, transfer.
• At independence: Mainly communal (land belonged to community, elders/clan heads controlled use).
• Colonial land alienation transformed land into commodity, leading to: widespread landlessness, reduced African land (pressure), fragmentation (deterioration), overstocking (soil erosion), displacement of communities (famine, disease), disintegration of social/cultural institutions.
• Mau Mau wars led to land reforms under Swynnerton Plan (1954): land consolidation, adjudication, registration.
• Land Adjudication: Verification of individual/group rights to land.
• Land Consolidation: Merging fragmented land into single units.
• Land Registration: Recording rights, issuing title deeds.
• Post-colonial land holding (inherited): Private/modern, communal/customary, public/state, open access.
  • Private land: 6% of total.
  • Government-owned (former crown land): 20% (national parks, forests, alienated/unalienated land).
  • Trust land: 64% (former native areas, awaiting small holder registration).
• Land ownership a source of conflict (e.g., 2007 post-election violence).
• Land Ownership under New Constitution (2010):
  • Public land: Held by central/local government (un-alianted, public utility, transferred to State, no individual/community ownership traceable, no heir, minerals, forests, reserves, water bodies, roads, territorial sea, continental shelf, land between high/low water marks, other declared public land).
  • Community land: Owned by group based on customary norms, not formal registration (registered in group name, transferred to specific community, community forests/grazing areas/shrines, ancestral lands, trust land by county governments excluding public land).
  • Private land: Held under registered entitlement (freehold/leasehold).
  • Non-citizens can only lease for max 99 years.
  • Corporate body citizen if wholly owned by citizens.
  • Trust property citizen if beneficial interest held by citizens.

Land Policies since independence:

• Two programs: Transfer from European large-scale farmers to Africans; Land consolidation/registration (government purchased farms, subdivided).
• Settlement Schemes on former European farms: Million Acre Scheme (1963, 13.5 ha/family); Harambee Scheme (1969, 16.25 ha/family); Haraka Scheme (squatters settled on small plots); Shirika Scheme (1971, landless/unemployed settled, individual plot + cooperative management).
• Schemes failed to solve landlessness; politically-connected acquired large, underutilized tracts; some schemes in harsh climates.
• Commissions addressed land issues (Njonjo Commission 2001, Ndung'u Commission 2003).
• By 1983, 29 districts benefited from land adjudication/registration (began 1950s Central Kenya, spread post-1963).
• Benefits of Land Reforms: Farmers used title deeds for loans, confident land purchase, thousands owned land, increased dairy/cash crop production.
• Principles Governing Land Utilization: Equitable access, transparent/cost effective administration, elimination of gender discrimination, sustainable/productive management, sound conservation of ecologically sensitive areas, encouragement of community land dispute settlement.
• Government Solutions for Land Problems:
  • Communal land ownership solved through demarcation/adjudication (conversion to modern freehold).
  • Landlessness solved via resettlement schemes (Mwea Tebere, Bura, Shirika).
  • Marginal lands made productive (irrigation/drainage schemes).
  • Removed movement restrictions from reserves (decongested, allowed arable farming).
  • Embarked on land consolidation.
  • Embarked on land reclamation.
  • Established National Land Commission to manage public land.

National Land Commission Functions:

Manages public land, advises on land registration, investigates historical injustices, encourages traditional dispute resolution, recommends national land policy, assesses land tax/premiums, monitors land use planning.

Development in Agriculture (since independence):

• Government encouraged small-scale coffee/tea farming.
• Agricultural Development Corporation (ADC) managed large-scale farms for seed/high-quality dairy/beef production.
• Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) assisted in identifying good crop breeds.
• Expanded irrigation schemes (Mwea, Bura, Ahero, Perkerra).
• Created development authorities (TARDA, KVDA, LBDA) to manage water catchment areas.
• Challenges Facing Agricultural Sector:
  • 1984 drought/famine.
  • Rapid population increase outpaced production.
  • Falling world market prices for commodities (late 1970s) vs. expensive inputs.
  • Corruption/mismanagement of cooperatives, meager earnings.
  • Grabbing of research land.
  • Poor infrastructure.
  • Ethnic clashes/post-election violence discouraged farming.
  • Poor technology, reliance on rain, primitive tools.
  • Pests destroy yields.
  • Competition from COMESA members/industrialized powers (EU, USA).

Industrial Developments (since independence):

• At independence: dominance of foreign capital and agricultural sector.
• Factors Facilitating Industrial Development:
  • Raw materials (trona, fluorspar, lime).
  • Fish resources (fish-processing).
  • Forests (timber for furniture).
  • Rich scenery/wildlife (tourism).
  • Water transport.
  • Addressed power concerns (Seven Forks Dam).
  • Favorable government policies to attract investors.
  • Measures to reduce imports (discriminative tariffs) to protect local industries.
  • Encouraged/assisted capital for industrial development (cooperative movement, ICDC, DFCK, Industrial Development Bank).
  • Ensured political stability.
• Factors Hinder Industrial Development:
  • Multinationals repatriate capital.
  • Shortage of strategic raw materials (petroleum, diamond, cotton).
  • Foreigners in managerial positions pass unfriendly policies.
  • Mismanagement/lack of transparency in parastatals.
  • Over-concentration of industries in few areas (social ills).
  • Competition from industrialized nations (dominate market, high-quality goods).
  • Poverty limits industrialization (small domestic market).
  • Low technology, small quantities produced.

Social Development and Challenges (since independence):

Education:

• Inherited poor quality/facilities.
• Government Measures: Constitutional amendments (Kiswahili 1975), several Education Commissions, Harambee strategy to expand facilities.
• Education Commissions: Ominde (1964) curriculum overhaul; Gachathi (1976) second university; Mackey (1982) established 8-4-4 system (emphasis on vocational subjects); Kamunge (1988) recommended cost sharing; Koech (1999) recommended A-level reintroduction (Totally Integrated Quality Education and Training).
• Main Developments: Kiswahili official language (1975), Ministry of Education structures, Harambee built schools, government took over pre-primary education (1980), UNICEF collaboration for early childhood education (1990s), increased university enrollment, Ministry took over primary education administration (1969), school milk program (1978, increased enrollment), school feeding program, Free Primary Education (2002).

Health:

• Measures: Ministry of Health created, expanded facilities (Harambee, donor funds), started training institutions, improved hygiene (piped water), established research institutions (KEMRI), basic education to uplift hygiene, free anti-retroviral/anti-malaria drugs.
• Major Challenges: Population increase vs. inadequate doctors/facilities. Cost-sharing (1980s) prevented poor from hospitals. Spread of HIV/AIDS, diabetes, heart diseases. Cultural practices (FGM). Environmental pollution (allergies). Poverty/malnutrition. Illegal abortion/early pregnancies. High accident/injury rates.

Preservation of African Culture:

• Government Encouragement: Ministry of Culture/Social Services, cultural studies in syllabus, music as national curriculum subject, music/drama festivals, encouraged intermarriage, developed cultural heritage centers (Bomas of Kenya, National Archives/Museums), schools admit diverse communities, media plays traditional music/dance.

The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC):

• Political Developments:
  • June 1960: Belgians granted autonomy. Patrice Lumumba (PM, Congolese National Movement) and Joseph Kasavubu (Head of State, Abako Party) formed fragile coalition, differed ideologically.
  • 1960-1965: Power struggle between Kasavubu/Lumumba and secessionists Moise Tsombe (Katanga), Albert Kalonji (Kasai).
  • 1961: Lumumba assassinated, supporters withdrew. UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld perished.
  • 1964: New constitution (federal state, federal president, separate assemblies).
  • Nov 1965: Joseph Desire Mobutu's bloodless military coup ousted Kasavubu/Kimba.
  • 1965: Mobutu banned all parties, suspended constitution/parliament, abolished federal system/local assemblies, reduced provinces.
  • 1967: Formed Peoples’ Revolution Movement (MPR), only legal party (one-party dictatorship, leaned to West during Cold War).
  • 1970: Mobutu declared himself life president.
  • 1971: Outlawed European names (country renamed Zaire, Mobutu Sese Seko, Leopoldville to Kinshasa).
  • 1973: Nationalized foreign enterprises.
  • 1977-1978: Shaba Rebellion (Congolese National Liberation Front from Angola), Belgian troops called in.
  • 1990-1991: Multiparty activists pressure, demonstrations.
  • 1997: Laurent Kabila (assisted by Rwanda/Uganda) ousted Mobutu (fled to exile, died).
  • Jan 2001: Laurent Kabila assassinated, son took over.
  • April 2002: Power-sharing agreement (Thabo Mbeki, UN envoy), government of national unity formed.
• Economic Developments:
  • Political chaos (up to 1965) hindered progress. Little infrastructure development under Belgians.
  • At independence: shortage of manpower, skills, entrepreneurship.
  • Under Mobutu: slight progress, improved transport/communication (roads, railway, Congo River navigation), expanded mining/agriculture.
  • Diamond mining resumed, reduced inflation. Mobutu encouraged foreign investment in mining.
  • 1970s: Fall of world copper prices, derailed growth.
  • 1970s: Government nationalized foreign firms, employed inexperienced people.
  • 1977: Mobutu enacted law placing state finances under him, reducing capital flow to provinces.
  • 1976: Encouraged cooperation between private firms/government for mineral extraction (copper, oil, diamond, cobalt, manganese) for employment.
  • Emphasized economic diversification, boosting food production.
  • Entertainment industry grew (invisible export).
  • Energy supply increased (Luga hydro-electric power station).
• Social Developments:
  • 1961-1965: Little improvement in health/education due to power struggles/civil strife.
  • Under Mobutu (1965): Expanded schools/universities (three universities by 1970), improved health facilities, banned religious education.
  • 1971: Authenticity program revived indigenous culture (renaming places).
  • 1970s: National insurance program established.
  • Prominence to music in curriculum, supported sporting activities.
• Social Challenges (General): Living standards fell, health/water/sanitation inadequate. Population rise split). Secession movements (Katanga, Kasai). Foreign interference/intrigues (Belgium, France, Britain). Army mutinies common.
• Economic Challenges (1970s): Corruption/mismanagement (Mobutu richest, Zairians poorest). Inflation. Heavy foreign debt (third biggest debtor nation by 1980). Standstill in economic activities, disruption of railway transport due to civil wars. Fall in world copper prices, increase in oil prices. Lack of sound economic policy.

Tanzania:

• Political Developments:
  • Comprised Tanganyika (independent 1961, Julius Nyerere) and Zanzibar (independent 1963, Sultan Seyyid Abdullah).
  • 1962: Tanganyika became one-party state, republican constitution, executive president (TANU sole party).
  • April 1964: Nyerere/Sheikh Abeid Karume signed union document (Nyerere head, Karume first VP).
  • 1967: Nyerere adopted African Socialism through Arusha Declaration.
  • 1972: Sheikh Abeid Karume assassinated, Aboud Jumbe succeeded.
  • 1973: Capital transferred from Dar-es-Salaam to Dodoma.
  • 1977: TANU and Afro-Shirazi Party merged to form Chama cha Mapinduzi (CCM), Nyerere chairman.
  • 1978-1979: Idi Amin invaded Kagera Province, Nyerere repulsed.
  • 1985: Nyerere retired, Ali Hassan Mwinyi became president.
  • May 1992: Adopted multi-partism (8th constitutional Amendment Act).
  • 1995: First multi-party election, Benjamin Mkapa elected president.
• Social Developments:
  • Attempted classless society, reduced rich-poor gap (Ujamaa policy).
  • Ujamaa tried to base political/economic policies on African traditions.
  • Communal farms created.
  • Primary education free (1977) and compulsory (1978).
  • High literacy rate in East Africa.
  • Until late 1980s: free health services (until SAPs by donors).
  • Kiswahili adopted as national language/medium of instruction.
• Economic Developments:
  • Main landmark: Ujamaa as development policy (1967 Arusha declaration).
  • Ujamaa aimed to transform rural production, increase labor productivity, allow specialization.
  • Government nationalized major means of production/essential services.
  • Tanzam railway constructed (with China), completed 1975.
  • 1976: Cooperative societies abolished, replaced by centralized government corporations.
  • 1979-1985: Economic stagnation, investors pulled out.
  • Collapse of EAC affected economy.
  • After 1985: Nyerere's policies challenged.
  • Mwinyi undertook economic reforms.
• Political Challenges: Army mutiny (1964). Socialism policy (Arusha Declaration) stiff opposition. Assassination of Abeid Karume (1972), resignation of Aboud Jumbe (1984) threatened union unity. Uganda invasion (1978) costly, threatened cooperation. Escalation of corruption among political elite (Mwinyi). Re introduction of multiparty democracy awakened tribalism/regionalism (contained).
• Social Problems: Famine/health service shortage (SAPs). Poverty/drop in living standards (due to socialism). Lack of social amenities (clean water). High illiteracy. Unemployment (industries closed after Arusha declaration). Population explosion outstripped resources. Terrorism (1997 US embassy attacks). Environmental pollution. Over-crowding in urban areas.
• Economic Challenges: Early independence: proliferation of African enterprises widened rich-poor gap. Ujamaa forced villagization resisted in favorable climate areas. Rampant rural-urban migration.
• Cold War's devastating effects: divided nations, border conflicts.
• Political instability (coups, military takeovers), human rights violations, dictatorship.
• Strained relations between leaders (personal/ideological differences) led to border closures, undermined cooperation.
• National interests conflicted with global/continental interests (e.g., Nigeria/Zimbabwe expelled from Commonwealth).
• Neo-colonialism (retained colonial structures, multinational peacekeeping forces common, leaders inherited divide-and-rule).
• Existence of different ethnic groups contributed to ethnic wars (Rwanda, Burundi, Sudan, Nigeria, Kenya).
• Ill-prepared/inexperienced governments led to rebel movements (Mozambique, Angola).

Economic Challenges:

• Unemployment and socio-economic inequalities.
• Overdependence on primary exports (extractive, not manufacturing economy), reliance on agriculture and foreign nations for manufactured goods.
• Unfair world trade terms (low prices for raw materials, high for manufactured goods).
• Unfavorable climatic conditions curtailed food production.
• Population pressure led to overstretching of social services, high dependency ratio.
• Poor economic planning (destabilizing policies like Ujamaa, expelling investors, money printing).
• Tough conditions by donor agencies (retrenchment by SAPs).
• Corruption and embezzlement of public funds, lack of transparency.

Definition: Granting of power from central government to lower level (region, local). Transfer/allocation of authority from central to regional government. Power/resources decentralized, political/economic decision-making transferred to people via local assemblies.

Origin:

Lancaster House Conference of 1962 (independent constitution adopted federal system, 6 regions, bicameral legislature). Post-independence (1963), Kenyatta government scuttled system. KANU/KADU merged (Dec 1964) to form unitary government. New constitution (Aug 27, 2010) reintroduced devolution.

Structure:

Kenya divided into 47 Counties, each governed by a County Governor with a County Executive Assembly. National Government in Nairobi.

County Boundary Changes (Considerations):

Population density/demographic trends, physical/human infrastructure, historical/cultural ties, cost of administration, views of affected communities, objectives of devolution, geographical features.

Reasons for Establishment:

• Promote democratic/accountable exercise of power.
• Foster national unity by recognizing diversity.
• Give self-governance powers to people, enhance participation in State power/decision-making.
• Recognize communities' right to manage affairs/development.
• Protect/promote interests/rights of minorities/marginalized.
• Promote social/economic development, provision of services.
• Ensure equitable sharing of national/local resources.
• Facilitate decentralization of State organs/functions/services from capital.
• Enhance checks, balances, separation of powers.

Principles:

County governments based on democratic principles/separation of power, reliable revenue sources, no more than two-thirds of representative bodies of same gender.

Structure and Functions of a County Government:

• County Assembly: Elected members (one per ward), special seats for gender balance/marginalized groups, Speaker (ex officio). Nominated members by political parties.
  • Conditions for Election: Registered voter, Kenyan citizen (10+ years), read/write English/Kiswahili, sound mind, unquestionable morals/ethics, relinquish public office (if applicable), nominated by party or supported by 500+ voters (independent), not bankrupt, no 6+ month imprisonment, not IEBC member (5 years prior), not misused public office.
  • Functions: Make laws, watchdog over county executive, approve plans/policies for resources/infrastructure/institutions, enhance legislation for administration/management, approve budgets/development projects/investment decisions/loans, supervise units, monitor project execution.
• Process of Law-making in County Government: County Executive drafts legislation, presents to County Assembly. Assembly debates, proposes amendments. If in favor and conforms with National Government legislation, it is approved as a by-law.
• County Executive Committee: Executive authority vested here. Consists of County Governor, Deputy County Governor, max 10 appointed members (not assembly members, or one-third if assembly <30). Accountable to Governor. Members cease office if Governor's office vacant.
  • Functions: Implements county/national legislation, manages/coordinates county administration/departments, prepares proposed legislation for assembly, provides reports to assembly.
• Powers and Functions of a Governor: Chief executive officer, chairs executive committee, implements national/county legislation, manages/coordinates administration/departments, provides reports to assembly, appoints executive committee members, ensures their accountability.
• Functions of a Deputy Governor: Deputy chief executive, assists governor in management/coordination, acts as governor in absence, assists in supervising executive committee, participates in legislation (prepares proposals), assumes governorship if governor incapacitated/removed.
• Functions and Powers of a County Government (General):
  • Agriculture promotion (crop/animal husbandry, livestock sale yards, slaughterhouses, disease control, fisheries).
  • County health services (public/personal).
  • Environmental pollution control (air, noise, outdoor advertising).
  • Promotes cultural activities/public amenities (libraries, museums, sports, casinos, beaches, parks).
  • Regulates education (pre-primary, polytechnic, craft, childcare).
  • Develops transport facilities (roads, street lighting, ferries, harbors, parking).
  • Regulates county planning/development (land survey, boundaries, housing, electricity, gas, energy).
  • Implements national policies on natural resources/environmental conservation.
  • Controls drug abuse/pornography access.

Relationship between National and County Government:

• Respect functional/institutional integrity of each other.
• Assist, support, consult, implement each other's legislation.
• Liaise for information exchange, policy coordination, capacity enhancement.
• Cooperate in performance of functions/powers.
• Settle disputes with reasonable efforts.
• Rural-urban migration (population pressure, slums, poor waste disposal, insufficient sanitation).
• National government interference.
• Election of ward members may hamper operations.

Possible Solutions:

• National government to provide adequate financial support via Equalization Fund to marginalized counties.
• Merge small, inefficient counties for service delivery.
• Stricter vetting of governor/deputy governor candidates to curb corruption.
• Urban-based counties given more funding.
• National government to curb rural-urban migration (employment opportunities in rural counties).
• Economically viable counties given financial autonomy/free-hand in decision making.

Public Finance: Revenue and expenditure of national and county government.

Principles Governing Use:

Openness/accountability, public participation, equitable sharing of revenue, equitable development (special provision for marginalized), equitable sharing of burdens/benefits of resources/borrowing between generations, prudent/responsible use of public money, responsible financial management with clear reporting.

National Budget:

Comprehensive statement of estimated revenue, expenditure, and financial plans for financial year.

• Components: Estimates of revenue/expenditure (recurrent/development), proposals for deficit financing, proposals for borrowing/public liability.
• Preparation/Implementation Process:
  • 3 months before financial year end: Department heads submit estimates to finance secretary.
  • 2 months before: Cabinet Secretary for Finance submits national government estimates (including Equalization Fund) to National Assembly, along with 3-year fiscal/monetary/development plan.
  • National Assembly considers estimates (including Parliamentary Service Commission, Judiciary).
  • Assembly committee discusses/reviews, makes recommendations to Assembly.
  • Approved estimates lead to Appropriation Bill to authorize withdrawals from Consolidated Fund.

Sources of Public Revenue (National Government):

• Domestic Revenue Sources (Taxes): (Details omitted for brevity, but would include various tax types like income tax, VAT, customs duties, etc.)
• External Revenue Sources: Bilateral Aid (two friendly nations) and Multilateral Aid (trading blocs, global institutions like World Bank, IMF, EU, Commonwealth).

Sources of Finance for County Governments:

• Equitable share (15% of national budget).
• Conditional and unconditional grants.
  • Unconditional Grants: Funds without conditions.
  • Conditional Grants: Funds for specific projects (Equalization Fund for basic services in marginalized areas, Contingencies Fund for urgent/unforeseen circumstances).
• Counties' own revenues (property rates, entertainment taxes, fees for services, other Parliament-permitted taxes).
• Borrowing (guaranteed by national government or with county assembly approval).
• Grants and donations.

Factors Determining Equitable Sharing of Public Finance:

National interest, public debt/obligations, national government needs, county governments' ability to perform functions, fiscal capacity/efficiency. County taxation powers must not prejudice national economic policies, cross county activities, or mobility of goods/services/capital/labor. No tax/licensing fee imposed/waived/varied except by legislation. Public record of waivers with reasons, reported to Auditor-General. No law may exclude State officer from tax payment.

Revenue Funds:

• Equalization Fund: For basic services (water, roads, health), sustain/maintain existing facilities.
• National Government Recurrent Expenditure: Remunerates employees, maintains public property, services debts, contributes to international organizations, provides grants/bursaries, maintains embassies abroad.
• County Government Expenditure: Provides basic social services, pays wages/salaries, controls pollution/waste, develops transport/entertainment/cultural facilities, repairs/maintains public facilities, sets aside emergency utility for fire/disaster, services borrowed funds, provides early childhood education/polytechnics/home craft centers.

Proper Management of Public Finances (National Government):

• Expenditure must be approved by Parliament.
• Controller of Budget oversees budget implementation, authorizes withdrawals from public funds.
• Controller of Budget submits reports to Parliament.
• Cabinet Secretary for Finance (with Parliament approval) can stop fund transfer if public body fails to adhere to procedures.
• Constant auditing of accounts/records.
• Accounting officer accountable to National Assembly.
• Auditor General audits all government/state organ accounts.
• Procurement policies (fair, transparent, competitive, cost effective) regulated by bodies like PPOA, PPARB.
• Sanctions against contractors failing to fulfill agreements.
• Sanctions against tax evaders/corrupt persons.
• Government contracts publicly advertised.
• Kenya Anti-Corruption Commission (KACC) established 2004 to investigate corruption.

Management and Expenditure:

• Auditor General audits county government accounts, submits reports to assembly.

Controller of Budget Role:

Oversees national/county budgets, authorizes withdrawals from public funds, submits reports to Parliament every four months.

Commission on Revenue Allocation (CRA):

• Composition: Chairperson, nominees from regional assemblies, county governments, National Assembly, Principal Secretary for Finance, Controller of Budget.
• Functions: Determines equitable sharing of revenue from national resources, makes recommendations on county finance/management, defines/implementation/monitoring/evaluation of strategic economic/social policies, considers/reports to Parliament on economic/social implications of bills/budgetary proposals, monitors progress in improving living standards (especially for poor/disadvantaged).

Britain:

• System of Government: Parliamentary system, evolved from Saxon Kings. Constitutional monarchy: monarchs rule according to laws made by people's representatives.
• Electoral Process: Based on party system (Conservative, Liberal, Labour). No fixed date for parliamentary elections (PM decides based on economic situation, legislative program, desire for government support). "One person, one vote."
  • Types of Elections: General elections (House of Commons, 5-year term); By-elections (resignation, death of MP); Local elections (councillors, every 4 years); Euro-elections (representatives to EU parliament, 81 MPs elected 1979).
  • Voter Registration: Local authorities responsible. Postal vote possible.
  • Disqualified Candidates: English/Scottish peers (House of Lords), clergy (Church of England, Ireland, Scotland, Roman Catholic priests), aliens, certified lunatics, undisputed bankrupts, convicted persons, persons committing illegal practices, armed forces members.
  • Candidates vie for 650 seats. Need not reside in constituency if registered voter. Campaigns 2 weeks before voting. Election agent manages finances, protects interests, explains policies, identifies supporters.
  • Deposit of 500 sterling pounds returned if candidate gets over 5% of vote.
  • Elections by plurality (highest votes wins). Party with most parliamentary seats forms government.
  • House of Lords members: High offices, bishops, scientists, artists, sportsmen, retired judges.
• Functions of Government (Four Institutions):
  • The Monarchy (Queen): Assents to legislation, appoints PM, approves cabinet, advises government, summons/prorogues/dissolves parliament (with PM), gives royal assent to bills, manages foreign policy/treaties, confers Monarchy, House of Lords, House of Commons.
  • Membership: Elections, nominations, inheritance, virtue of office.
  • Parliamentary Supremacy: Makes/amends/abolishes laws (no other institution can), branches operate under its laws, can pass vote of no confidence (remove unpopular government), approves government revenue/expenditure, decisions binding/cannot be overruled by courts.
  • House of Lords: Membership by monarch nomination, hereditary, holding senior Church of England positions. 1200 members (800 hereditary, 26 Bishops, 21 Lords of Appeal). Members receive sitting allowances (except Lords of Appeal salaries).
  • Role: Checks House of Commons (prevents nasty legislation), addresses non-controversial bills, holds bills for public approval, questions ministers, debates policy, acts as court of appeal (criminal cases), utilizes talents of those who couldn't win elections, enhances national unity, provides continuity.
  • House of Commons: Major, Trade Unions), future parliaments can change legislation, international law.
  • The Executive: Prime Minister, Cabinet, Civil Service.
  • Prime Minister: Appointed by monarch (leader of majority party). Functions: appoints/dismisses cabinet, recommends senior civil servants, represents Britain internationally, controls cabinet secretariat, oversees cabinet decisions, leads party, settles inter departmental disputes, leads House of Commons, initiates domestic/foreign policies.
  • The Cabinet: Ministers appointed by PM (with monarch approval) from majority party. Functions: institutes departmental policies, determines policy for Parliament, coordinates government activity.
  • Conventions for Operation: Resign if defeated on major issue/no confidence vote; drawn from House of Commons/Lords; entire cabinet from same party (except crisis); advice accepted by monarch; members take Oath of Privy Councillors/bound to secrecy; collectively responsible for decisions, individually for departments.
  • The Civil Service: Servants of the Crown, non-partisan, serve Independence Ensured: Salaries not discussed by parliament, appointed on good behavior until retirement, dismissed only by resolution from both houses.
  • Structure: (Further reading encouraged).
• Components of British Constitution: Statutes/acts of parliament, customs (accepted traditions), law of precedence (judges apply principles to new facts), custom of parliament (procedures of houses), historical documents (Magna Carta).

USA:

• Origin: 1776, 13 British Colonies State (governors, legislatures).
• Candidates must be citizens, residents of area represented. Age limits: 25 (representatives), 35 (president).
• Party primaries (March-May) choose presidential candidates. Party conventions (July) confirm winners. Presidential candidate picks running mate (VP).
• Presidential elections every 4 years (Nov 2). Determined indirectly by Electoral College (electors appointed by each state). Winner of popular vote in state wins all state's electors.
• Direct elections by popular vote.
• Senators/House of Representatives members elected every 2 years.
• Senators serve 6 years (one-third elected every 2 years). House of Representatives members serve 2 years, elected on party basis.
• Each state elects 2 senators (100 total). House of Representatives election based on state population (e.g., California 52, Wyoming 1). two-thirds House support. Supreme Court (Chief Justice, 8 associate judges) heads federal judiciary. Courts include Court of Appeal, district courts, special courts. Criminal cases in courts (except impeachment). Foreign policy/defense preserve of Federal Government.
• Features of State Governments: Each state has governor, law court for internal affairs, provides educational/health facilities/public amenities, responsible for own development, generates own revenue, bicameral legislature, state police.
• Limitations of State Governments: No treaties/alliances with other states/countries, no own currency, forbidden from levying duties on imports/exports (unless Congress approves), prohibited from maintaining armed forces, prohibited from agreements with foreign powers/engaging in war.
• How Conduct of USA President is Checked: Senate approves appointees, Congress can refuse to approve foreign policy funds, Congress can impeach president, Supreme Court can declare unconstitutional actions, limited to two 4-year terms, opinion polls reflect public wishes, mass media monitors/reports actions.
• Functions of Political Parties: Make electoral policies coherent, help voters distinguish/defender of constitution, formulates public policy, can veto/override bills, influences public opinion/guides Congress as party head, guides/controls foreign affairs, makes treaties.

India:

• Electoral Process:
  • Parliament: Lower Chamber (Lok Sabha - House of The People) and Upper House (Rajya Sabha - Council of States).
  • Lok Sabha term 5 years, Rajya Sabha 6 years.
  • Lok Sabha: 545 elected members.
  • Campaigning ends day before voting. Government schools/colleges as polling stations, government servants man stations.
  • Electronic voting machines used.
  • Candidate with most votes wins constituency.
  • Party/coalition with most seats invited by President to form government; leader becomes PM.
  • Rajya Sabha: 250 members (248 elected by electoral college, 12 nominated by President from distinguished people).
  • Each state allotted members be Lok Sabha member.
• Functions of Cabinet: Formulation of policy issues, defends government policy, ensures civil servants implement policy, advises president, approves budget/expenditure, exercises general direction/control of government departments.