FORM THREE: History and Government

European interests in Africa date back to the 1st century AD, with Greeks, Romans, Portuguese, British, French, and Dutch trading with Africans, which led to the development of trade routes and centers that "opened up" Africa. For centuries, interactions involved trade, exploration, and missionary work. However, between 1884 and 1914, this changed, leading to the European invasion and colonization of Africa, known as the Scramble and Partition of Africa.

• Scramble means to rush for, compete, or struggle to get something.
• Partition means to divide something among people or competitors.

The Scramble and Partition of Africa refers to the rush by European powers to establish spheres of influence or colonies in Africa.

1. Signing of Treaties: Europeans signed treaties with local leaders and among themselves.
2. Military Conquest: Used when treaty making failed.
3. Diplomacy: Peaceful negotiations to acquire territory.
4. Trickery: Luring African leaders with gifts to surrender territory.
5. Company Rule: Chartered companies administered colonies on behalf of European powers.
6. Missionaries: Missionaries sought protection from their home countries after converting Africans to Christianity.

The partition involved dividing Africa among European powers after the Berlin Conference of 1884-85. The agreed terms were:

1. Effective Occupation: Once an area was declared a sphere of influence, effective occupation had to be established.
2. Notification: Any European power claiming part of Africa had to inform other interested powers.
3. Protection: Missionaries, traders, and explorers were to be protected by colonial powers regardless of origin.
4. Abolition of Slave Trade: Any power acquiring territory in Africa had to undertake to abolish slave trade.
5. Free Navigation: River Niger and River Congo were to be left free for all European powers for fair international trade.
6. Partition Treaties: Treaties were to be used to sort out future disagreements.

The partition of Africa had several effects on both Africans and Europeans, including:

1. Drawing of Boundaries in Africa.
2. Spread of Christianity.
3. Introduction of Western education.
4. Abolition of slave trade.
5. Improvement in agriculture.
6. Some communities were split into different countries.

Resistance refers to the use of weapons by Africans to fight foreigners. The Mandinka, led by Samouri Toure, were an example of a community that resisted the French invasion.

Reasons for Mandinka Resistance:

1. To safeguard their independence.
2. Samouri Toure was unwilling to lose the Bure Gold mines to the French.
3. Samouri wanted to maintain economic and military supremacy.
4. He was against the introduction of Christianity to his Muslim subjects.
5. The French supplied weapons to his enemy, Tieba of Sikasso.

Factors for Prolonged Resistance:

1. He was a soldier and had a large, well-equipped army with modern weapons.
2. He used guerrilla tactics and knew his terrain well.
3. He had a workshop where he made and repaired his weapons.

Reasons for Samouri Toure's Defeat:

1. Lack of adequate supplies.
2. Lack of unity among African societies.
3. Samouri's second empire was open to attacks.
4. The British refused to support Samouri against the French.
5. The French had superior weapons.
6. His army became demoralized due to continuous warfare.

Results of Mandinka Resistance:

1. Loss of independence.
2. Loss of lives.
3. Destruction of property.
4. Displacement of people.
5. Samouri was deported to Gabon where he died.

Collaboration means entering into a cooperation, association, or partnership with another person, party, or group. Unlike Samouri Toure, Lewanika collaborated with the British.

Reasons for Lewanika's Collaboration:

1. Lewanika needed British cooperation to quash a succession dispute threatened by his half-brother Mwanawina.
2. External attacks in the form of Ndebele cattle raids.
3. The Portuguese were raiding the Lozi for slaves with sophisticated weapons.
4. Lewanika was impressed by the benefits Chief Khama of Ngwato (Botswana) obtained from cooperating with the British.
5. Lewanika admired the Western way of life and was influenced by his French missionary secretary, Francois Coillard.
6. Lewanika was aware of the British military supremacy.

Course of Lewanika's Collaboration:

It involved a series of treaties:

1. The Ware Treaty of 1889: Allowed the British to prospect for minerals.
2. The Lochner Treaty of 1890: Gave the British exclusive mining rights in all Balotse areas, except traditional iron mines.
3. Lawley Treaty of 1898: Allowed British settler farming in Balotseland.
4. The Coryndon Treaty of 1900: Gave the British judicial and administrative powers, leading to Lewanika becoming a paramount chief and an employee in the British administration, no longer an independent king.

Results of Lozi Collaboration:

1. Lewanika retained his position as paramount chief of the Lozi.
2. The British used the Lozi to establish authority over northern Rhodesia.
3. Lozi chiefs lost all their powers except tax collection.
4. The British South Africa Company exploited minerals in Borotseland.
5. The British built schools, hospitals, transport, and communication links in Borotseland.

The Nandi were among Kenyan communities that strongly resisted initial British occupation using armed struggle. Koitalel Arap Samoei was a key Nandi leader.

Causes of the Nandi Resistance:

1. They regarded themselves as superior due to their strong military organization.
2. Kimnyole's prophecy warned them against allowing foreigners into their territory.
3. Koitalel Arap Samoei's able leadership, which also symbolized unity among the Nandi.
4. They were against the construction of the Uganda Railway across their territory.
5. They disliked Europeans due to their pale skin, clothes, and associated them with devils.
6. They wanted to preserve their cultural practices and religious beliefs.

Reasons why Nandi Resistance lasted so long (about ten years):

1. Their land was mountainous with valleys, and the Nandi were conversant with the terrain.
2. They practiced a mixed economy, so they could still depend on food crops when cattle were confiscated.
3. Their age-set system provided a reliable military force.
4. Climatic conditions were harsh for the British invaders.
5. Poor transport and communication delayed quick movement of British forces.

Results of the Nandi Resistance:

1. Loss of independence.
2. Loss of lives.
3. Destruction of property.
4. The Nandi leader, Koitalel Arap Samoei, was killed in 1905.
5. Land alienation.
6. Creation of African reserves.

The Maasai, led by Lenana, collaborated with the British during the Scramble and Partition of Africa.

Causes of Maasai Collaboration:

1. Succession dispute between Lenana and Sendeyo.
2. Natural calamities such as drought and locust invasion.
3. External attacks from the Nandi and Luo.
4. Desire to protect their independence.
5. Desire to protect their pasture land and water points.

Course of Maasai Collaboration:

Collaboration involved the signing of treaties:

1. The 1904 treaty: Created the Laikipia Plateau in the North and Ngong reserves to the South.
2. The 1911 treaty: Pushed the Maasai to the Southern reserve.
3. The British used Maasai mercenaries to fight the Nandi and Luo.

Effects of Maasai Collaboration:

1. Lenana became a Paramount Chief of the Maasai in 1901.
2. The Maasai were moved to reserves, namely Loita and Ngong.
3. They lost their land to the British.
4. Maasai freedom was curtailed, and rituals were restricted to specific areas.
5. There was total disruption of their economy.
6. Animals and foodstuffs looted from the Nandi, Agikuyu, and Luo were given to the Maasai.
7. The Maasai were used as mercenaries against resisting communities such as the Nandi and Agikuyu.
8. Their migratory grazing habits were curtailed.
9. The Maasai lost their independence, and their land was declared a British protectorate.

Mixed reaction refers to a situation where some people within a community collaborated while others resisted the colonialists. The Akamba, Agikuyu, and Luo communities exhibited mixed reactions.

Causes of Akamba Resistance:

1. Loss of independence after the establishment of colonial rule.
2. Cutting down of the shrine tree.
3. Abuse of their culture.
4. Forced labour.
5. Military expeditions.

Course/Methods of Akamba Resistance:

1. They refused to sell goods to company agents.
2. The cutting of the shrine tree led the prophetess to organize an attack at Masaku Fort.
3. In response, the company burned and looted Akamba villages.
4. More Akamba attacks occurred in 1894.
5. The British attacked and defeated the Akamba, leading to the Akamba starting to collaborate.

Reasons for Akamba Collaboration:

1. They had been defeated many times by the British.
2. Mwatu wa Ngoma was stopped from attacking Masaku Fort by John Hensworhy, leading to his collaboration.
3. The famine of 1899 weakened the Akamba, making them unable to fight effectively.
4. The ruthlessness of British attacks scared many warriors.
5. They wanted to get benefits from the British, such as clothes, beads, and cowry shells.

Ways in which the Akamba Collaborated:

1. Creating friendship with British administrators.
2. Selling food to the British.
3. Working for the British.
4. Making of covenants with the British.
5. They surrendered their land.
6. Receiving gifts from the British, such as clothes and guns.

Indirect Rule was a British system of administration where African chiefs who were in power before the British arrival were allowed to continue ruling under British District Commissioners.

Central Administration Structure in Kenya:

To effectively administer Kenya, the British introduced a central government structure:

1. Colonial Secretary: Based in London.
2. Governor or Chief Executive Officer: Based in Nairobi.
3. Provincial Commissioners: In charge of provinces.
4. District Commissioners: In charge of districts.
5. Division Officers.

Role of African Chiefs in Colonial Administration:

African chiefs worked under District Officers. Their duties included:

1. Solving petty disputes among Africans.
2. Maintaining law and order.
3. Collection of taxes.
4. Mobilizing African labour for public works.
5. Explaining colonial government policies to the people.
6. Organizing public Barazas.

Reasons for British Indirect Rule in Kenya:

1. It was cheap: African Chiefs did not require high salaries.
2. Lack of enough personnel: The British controlled many colonies.
3. Less resistance from Africans: They were ruled by their own chiefs.
4. Poor transport and communication: Limited access to some rural areas.
5. Success in other areas: The system was already successful in India.

Effects of Indirect Rule in Kenya:

1. Appointed African chiefs facilitated implementation of colonial laws.
2. African communities remained divided as chiefs supported colonial administration.
3. The "divide and rule" policy isolated Africans along tribal lines.
4. Creation of chiefs in stateless societies led to colonial misrule and suffering for Africans.
5. Prepared Africans for future responsibilities after independence.

Indirect Rule in Nigeria was a British system where African chiefs in power before British arrival continued to rule under British administrators.

How Indirect Rule was Applied in Northern Nigeria:

1. Northern Nigeria was divided into Emirates headed by Emirs.
2. Emirs were left to rule their own people.
3. Fredrick Lugard assured Emirs that the British did not intend to replace them, gaining their cooperation.
4. Lugard allowed Emirs to impose and collect taxes as before.
5. They were also allowed to judge cases in their courts.
6. Emirs retained powers to appoint officials in charge of villages.
7. A protectorate court was created in each Province to serve as a Court of Appeal, presided over by Africans.

Challenges of Indirect Rule in Southern Nigeria:

1. Southern Nigeria had many different ethnic groups with diverse political and religious systems.
2. Attempts by Fredrick Lugard to give more powers to Yoruba traditional leaders proved futile.
3. The Egba Community resisted paying taxes.
4. Among the Ibo, young, mission-educated men appointed as Emirs were opposed by elders.
5. There was no common language in the South, with elites using English and others using local languages.

Effects of Indirect Rule in Southern Nigeria:

1. The role of African traditional rulers was transformed.
2. Indigenous systems of administration and justice were modernized by the British.
3. African chiefs accumulated a lot of wealth at the expense of their people.
4. Developments like Christianity, Western education, and technology took time to gain root.
5. Created suspicion and mistrust between the educated elite and traditional chiefs.
6. Helped to preserve African culture.

Direct Rule was a system involving the use of European administrators in all units of administration, from highest to lowest. It was used in colonies with large white populations and areas facing constant revolts.

Reasons for Direct Rule in Zimbabwe:

1. Zimbabwe had a large white population.
2. Africans, especially the Ndebele, kept revolting against colonial rule.
3. The British South Africa Company had enough personnel for administration.
4. They wanted to fully exploit natural resources.
5. The traditional system of administration was dismantled, and local chiefs were deprived of powers.
6. Europeans never intended Zimbabwe to be given independence.

Processes of Direct Rule in Zimbabwe:

British Direct Rule began on November 4, 1893. The British South Africa Company hoisted the Union Flag, and by 1895, the colony was named Rhodesia. The administration was authoritative and managed by white minorities, with the following structure:

1. Governor: Highest officer, under the Colonial Secretary.
2. Legislative Council: Dominated by the white minority.
3. Prime Minister: Controlled the legislature and Cabinet (made up only of whites).
4. Magistrates: Dealt with issues affecting settlers.
5. Native Commissioners: Settled cases involving Africans.
6. Native Affairs Department: Equivalent to a district, under a white officer assisted by African chiefs.
7. Chiefs had no powers but implemented orders from Native Commissioners.

Effects of Direct Rule in Zimbabwe:

1. Settlement of whites who took most of the fertile land.
2. Africans were displaced to semi-arid reserves.
3. The power and authority of African traditional chiefs was undermined.
4. Imposition of heavy taxes on Africans.
5. Africans were subjected to forced labour.
6. African economic activities were disrupted.
7. Racial segregation legalized the oppression of Africans by whites.
8. Unilateral Declaration of Independence by Ian Smith in 1965 delayed real independence until 1980.

Assimilation meant that assimilated Africans were to be "similar" or "resemble" Europeans in terms of culture, acquiring the same status as French people.

Privileges of Assimilated Africans:

1. Were granted French citizenship.
2. Were treated as African Frenchmen.
3. Enjoyed educational opportunities like the Frenchmen.
4. Were employed in the French civil service.
5. Enjoyed the same voting rights as the Frenchmen.
6. Could send representatives to the French chamber of deputies.
7. Enjoyed similar trading rights like Frenchmen.
8. Were exempted from forced labour, taxation, and other forms of discrimination.

Characteristics of Assimilation Policy:

1. Colonies were regarded as oversees departments of France.
2. The colonized people were to adopt the French culture.
3. Colonies elected representatives to the French parliament.
4. There were common legal practices in French colonies with those of France.
5. French language was used as the official language.
6. Introduction of French system of education.
7. Attempt to transform Africans in Senegal into "Frenchmen in black skins".

Factors that Led to the Failure of Assimilation Policy:

The policy failed because cultures cannot die overnight, and most French nationals opposed elevating Africans to equals. Other factors:

1. It was an expensive policy to implement and sustain.
2. The policy was confined to the four communes of Senegal, leaving the interior unaffected.
3. Cultural differences between Africans (e.g., polygamy) and French (e.g., monogamy).
4. Racial discrimination: The French resented equality with Africans.
5. Fear of economic rivalry with Africans.
6. Increased dissatisfaction from African elite elected to the French parliament due to discrimination.
7. Africans rejected the policy on religious grounds (Muslims vs. Christians).
8. Differences between French legal system and African customary laws (inheritance, divorce, marriage).

Effects of Assimilation Policy:

1. The policy undermined African culture.
2. The authority of traditional African leaders was eroded.
3. The colony was incorporated into the French republic.
4. Africans in Senegal were allowed to participate in the political matters of France.
5. The assimilation policy frustrated the spread of Islam, especially in the French quarter communes.

Construction of the Uganda Railway began in 1895 and was completed in 1901, linking Uganda to the Kenyan coast and the outside world.

Reasons for Building the Uganda Railway:

1. To link Uganda with the Kenyan coast and the outside world.
2. To enhance maximum economic exploitation of the East African Protectorate.
3. To facilitate quick and efficient movement of administrators and troops.
4. To stop slave trade and promote legitimate trade.
5. To enable Britain protect her strategic interests of the source of River Nile in Uganda.

Problems Encountered During Construction:

1. Need to import skilled and unskilled labour from India (coolies).
2. Resistance by some African communities, such as the Nandi.
3. Imposition of materials from abroad increased construction cost.
4. The man-eating lions of Tsavo killed many workers.
5. Scarcity of essential supplies (water, food), especially across dry wastelands.
6. Tropical diseases like malaria claimed lives.
7. The escarpments of the Rift Valley posed engineering challenges.
8. Jiggers were a problem for Indian workers walking barefoot.

Effects of the Construction of the Uganda Railway:

1. Development of urban centres.
2. Opened up the interior of Kenya to the outside world.
3. Facilitated the coming of white settlers who introduced new farming methods.
4. Settlers occupied fertile highlands, making some Africans landless.
5. Indians who came as railway workers settled in Kenya permanently.
6. Encouraged the spread of Christianity.
7. Promoted both local and international trade.
8. Encouraged construction of other means of transport and communication (roads).
9. Led to the redrawing of the boundary between Kenya and Uganda.
10. Led to the transfer of the capital of Kenya from Mombasa to Nairobi.

The colonial government encouraged white settlement to make Kenya a "white man's country" and the backbone of the economy.

Reasons why the Government Encouraged White Settlers:

1. To make Kenya a "white man's country" and the backbone of the economy.
2. To help finance administrative costs.
3. To produce raw materials for British industries.
4. Africans lacked funds and skills for large-scale farming.
5. To check Asian migration and influence by settling more whites.
6. To pay for the construction cost of the Kenya-Uganda railway.

Methods Used to Promote Settler Farming:

1. Provided land.
2. Improved transport and communication network.
3. Formation of cooperatives for marketing goods.
4. Provided security.
5. Banned Africans from growing cash crops.
6. Provided agricultural extension services to settlers.

Problems Faced by White Settlers:

1. Constant raids on farms by local communities (Nandi, Maasai).
2. Many Africans were not willing to offer labour.
3. Settlers lacked basic knowledge, skills, and experience in agriculture.
4. Shortage of funds to buy farm inputs and machinery.
5. Poor transport and communication network (roads, railways).
6. The settlers lacked knowledge about the seasons.
7. Pests and diseases affected crops and animals.

Cash Crops Introduced by White Farmers:

• Coffee: Planted around Taita Taveta, later prominent in Central Province.
• Wheat: Introduced by Lord Delamere in Njoro in 1903, grown in Nakuru and Uasin Gishu.
• Sisal: Introduced in 1893 from Tanganyika, grown in Thika, Eastern Province, Kibwezi, Baringo, Voi, Taita Taveta, and Kilif.
• Tea: Introduced in 1903 at Limuru, grown in Kericho, Nandi, Muranga, Meru, Nyeri, and Kiambu.
• Livestock: Settlers like Lord Delamere introduced rearing sheep and cattle in Njoro.

The colonial government created land policies that legalized the annexation of land from Africans for white settlement.

Key Land Policies/Legislation:

1. Indian Acquisition Act of 1896: Empowered the government to take over land for railway construction.
2. The Land Legislation Act of 1897: Enabled the government to offer certificates of occupation.
3. The 1907 East African Order in Council: Defined crown land as all public land not private, allowing the government to take, sell, or lease it at will.
4. The Maasai Agreement of 1904: Pushed the Maasai to Laikipia and Ngong reserves, encouraging settlers to take up Maasai land.

Effects of Land Policies:

1. The Africans lost their land.
2. Africans were pushed to reserves (e.g., Maasai).
3. Land alienation stopped widespread migration and settlements of Africans.
4. Led to the introduction of the Kipande system.
5. Many Africans became squatters and labourers in European farms.
6. Led to the rise of African nationalism and the struggle for independence.

Education in Kenya during the colonial period was primarily developed by Christian missionaries, the colonial government, Africans, and Asians.

Aims of Missionary Education:

1. To offer basic literacy skills to enable Africans to read the Bible and do simple arithmetic.
2. To enhance the spread of Christianity by training African catechists.
3. To teach Africans basic technical skills (e.g., carpentry).
4. To teach Africans better methods of hygiene.
5. To teach Africans agricultural skills to promote European farming.

Development of Education:

• Early Stages: The first schools started in Mombasa and Rabai in the 1840s by CMS missionaries Krapf and Rebmann. Until 1910, missionaries established schools without government assistance, and education lacked a syllabus or formal certification.
• Government Involvement: In 1911, the colonial government started an education department, establishing the first government schools and drawing a syllabus.
• Secondary Education: Did not exist until 1926, when Alliance High School was started by an alliance of Protestant churches. Other secondary schools (e.g., Mang'u, Maseno, Kagumo, Kibianga) were controlled by Christian missionaries and admitted students whose parents belonged to the sponsoring missionary sect.
• African Independent Schools: Africans started their own independent schools free of missionary influence, such as Githunguri Independent School (1925) and Gaithieko (1912).
• University Education: The first university in East Africa was Makerere, started in 1949. In 1963, Makerere, Royal College Nairobi, and Dar-es-Salaam merged to form the University of East Africa, later becoming separate universities in 1971.

The period between 1919 and 1939 saw the emergence of many African political associations, partly due to Africans' participation in World War II and their realization of shared grievances after Kenya became a British protectorate in 1920.

Examples of Early Political Associations:

1. East African Association: Members included Harry Thuku, Jomo Kenyatta, and Jesse Kariuki.
2. Kikuyu Central Association (KCA): Members included Joseph Kangethe and Jesse Kariuki. Kenyatta became its secretary and editor of its newspaper, Muiguithania.
3. Kavirondo Tax Payers Welfare Association: Members included Jonathan Okwiri, Simon Nyende, and Benjamin Owuor Gumba.
4. Ukamba Members Association: Members included Samuel Muindi Mbingu, Isaac Mwalonzi, Simon Kioko, and Elijah Kavula.
5. Coast African Association: Leaders included Noah Mwana Sele, Mohamed bin Mwichande, E.W. Timothy, and H.G. Banks.
6. Taita Hills Association: Started by Daniel Mapinga, later taken up by Woresho Kolandi Mengo, Jimmy Mwambishi, and Paul Chumbo.

Characteristics of Early Political Associations:

1. They were tribal-based.
2. They were led by mission-educated young men.
3. Asians gave them both material and moral support.
4. They had similar grievances (e.g., land alienation, poor living/working conditions).
5. They were non-militant.
6. Had small membership.
7. They were not well organized.

Grievances of Early Political Organizations:

1. Removal of the Kipande system.
2. Return of alienated land.
3. Reduction of taxation.
4. Better working conditions.
5. Provision of quality education for Africans.
6. Protection of African culture.
7. Removal of colonial oppressive laws.
8. Removal of destocking policies.

Challenges Faced by Early Political Organizations:

1. Harassment by the colonial government.
2. Deportation of leaders (e.g., Harry Thuku).
3. Leadership wrangles among members.
4. Lack of experience in running political parties.
5. Lack of enough funds.
6. Disunity due to ethnicity.
7. Banning of Political Parties by the colonial government.

Achievements of Early Political Parties:

1. Provided political education to African communities.
2. Communicated communities' feelings to the colonial government.
3. Defended African cultures against erosion by European missionaries.
4. Played the role of trade unionism, fighting for workers' welfare.
5. Demanded better wages and living conditions for Africans.
6. Publicized African grievances to the international community.
7. Promoted nationalism by forging inter-community relations.

Independent churches and schools emerged as a protest against mission churches and schools, and against the Westernizing influence of missionaries.

Reasons for Emergence:

1. Africans were discriminated against in leadership positions in the church.
2. Africans considered missionaries as agents of the colonial government.
3. Some Africans were dissatisfied with the interpretation of Christian scriptures.
4. Children of non-converted parents were refused admission in missionary schools.
5. Africans wanted to preserve their customs (e.g., female circumcision, polygamy, dowry payment).

Characteristics of Independent Churches and Schools:

1. They were made up of African congregations and led by Africans.
2. They combined African traditions and customs with Christian teachings.
3. They allowed African practices (e.g., polygamy).
4. They served as alternative outlets of nationalism during the struggle for independence.
5. Teachers in the independent schools were Africans.
6. They adopted the use of drums and African type of music and dancing in their worship.

Problems Facing Independent Churches and Schools:

1. Lack of adequate funds.
2. Leadership wrangles led to splitting of churches.
3. Poor and inadequate facilities.
4. Lack of trained personnel.
5. Competition from mission churches and schools.
6. Most were closed during the emergency in 1952.
7. They faced constant harassment from the colonial government and missionaries.

After World War II, the colonial government allowed the formation of national political parties.

Kenya African Union (KAU):

• Started as Kenya African Study Union in 1944, changed name to KAU in 1946.
• Objectives: To unite African people, promote economic/social/political interests, support Eliud Mathu, and coordinate African nationalist activities.
• Mzee Jomo Kenyatta was elected president of KAU in 1947.

Trade Unions are associations of workers whose objectives are to fight for the improvement of their welfare. Tom Mboya was a charismatic trade union leader.

Reasons for the Formation of Trade Unions:

1. Need for a united front to press for better wages.
2. The Kipande System interfered with freedom for workers.
3. African workers were heavily taxed and poorly paid.
4. Banning of political associations created a desire for an alternative avenue for political expression.
5. To fight for better working conditions and housing.
6. High cost of living due to increased prices of essential commodities.

Contributions of the Trade Union Movement:

1. Served as a training ground for nationalist leaders (e.g., Tom Mboya).
2. Raised funds to sustain political leaders.
3. Demanded the release of political leaders.
4. Served as political outlets when political parties were banned.
5. Sensitized workers on the need for joining political parties.
6. Organized strikes, go-slows, sit-ins, and boycotts to oppose colonial policies.

African women contributed economically, politically, and socially. Notable women include:

• Moraa Moka Ngiti: Mobilised her people against colonialists.
• Mekatilili wa Menza: Mobilised the Agiryama against the British.
• Syotune wa Kithuke: Used the Kilumi dance in 1911 to mobilise the Akamba.
• Kobilo Kwondoat Kimosop: Provided herbal medicine for wounded Tugen warriors.
• Mary Nyanjiru: Attacked police officers when Harry Thuku was arrested.
• Chief Mang'ana of Kadem: Led her people in resisting the British.
• Field Marshall Muthoni: Actively participated in Mau Mau as a fighter.
• Wambui Otieno: Acted as a conveyor of arms and intelligence.

Other roles included:

1. Caring for children and families of freedom fighters.
2. Providing food to freedom fighters in the forest.
3. Acting as spies for freedom fighters.
4. Boosting morale through praise songs and demonstrations.

1. Discontentment of Second World War ex-service men who were not compensated.
2. Africans were exposed to radical nationalism through interactions with other people.
3. Influence from other countries granted independence (e.g., India, Pakistan).
4. Western educated elite enabled Africans to demand their rights.
5. The Pan-African Movement inspired African nationalists.
6. The formation of the UN after 1945 supported decolonization.
7. Disregard of traditional African rulers by colonialists.
8. Resentment of oppressive colonial policies (land alienation, taxation, racial segregation).

Active nationalism in Ghana started around 1945 after World War II, when the UN declared the right of all people to choose their government.

Course of Nationalism in Ghana:

• Characterized by the formation of political movements, including the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) in 1947.
• Accra riots of 1948 spread after British soldiers killed protestors, leading to Kwame Nkrumah's arrest.
• Other causes included low profits from cocoa sales, high prices of European manufactured goods, and selective granting of trading licenses.
• A new constitution was recommended after the riots.
• In 1949, Kwame Nkrumah formed the Convention Peoples Party (CPP), which demanded independence and gained mass support.
• In 1950, Kwame encouraged constitutional strikes, boycotts, and non-cooperation.
• The government declared a state of emergency, imprisoning Nkrumah and other CPP officials, but newspapers continued campaigning.
• In 1951, CPP won general elections, and Kwame formed the government.
• In 1954, the National Liberation Movement (NLM) emerged but was defeated by CPP.
• In 1957, Ghana attained independence, with Kwame Nkrumah becoming Prime Minister.

Methods Used by Ghanaians in the Struggle for Independence:

1. The use of public rallies.
2. The formation of Trade Unions.
3. Africans demonstrated, boycotted, and used strikes against colonial rule.
4. The use of international fora, such as the UN, to present grievances.
5. The use of publications, such as the Accra Evening News Magazines.
6. Africans participated in constitutional negotiations (e.g., Coussey Commission).

Portuguese interest in Mozambique dates back to the 15th century. Formation of political parties was delayed until the 1960s because the colony was treated as an extension of Portugal and political associations were not allowed.

Reasons for Delayed Formation of Political Parties:

1. The colony was treated as an extension of Portugal, not allowed to form political associations.
2. The large size of Mozambique colony.
3. Existence of many ethnic groups.
4. Strict and rigorous censorship by security forces.

Course of Nationalism in Mozambique:

• Mozambicans in exile formed movements like the National Democratic Union of Mozambique (UDENEMO), African Union of Independent Mozambique (UNAMI), and Mozambique National Union (MANU).
• In 1962, these parties merged to form FRELIMO (Front for the Liberation of Mozambique), with Eduardo Mondlane as president. Its headquarters were in Dar-es Salaam, Tanzania.

Grievances of Mozambicans Against Colonial Rule:

1. Forced labour on plantations and public works.
2. Forced to pay heavy hut taxes.
3. Racial discrimination in job opportunities, education, and health.
4. Land alienation by settlers.
5. Poor working conditions and low wages.
6. Restriction of African movement.
7. Brutality, oppression, arbitrary arrests, and murder of Africans.

The War of Liberation:

• FRELIMO started a full-scale guerrilla war from 1964.
• The war broke out in four provinces simultaneously, undermining Portuguese forces.
• The Organization of African Unity (OAU) supported FRELIMO financially, while Tanzania provided a base. Other frontline states provided training and material support.
• In 1969, Eduardo Mondlane was assassinated, and Samora Machel replaced him in 1970.
• A coup d'état in Portugal in 1974 overthrew the government, replacing it with one that granted independence to Portuguese colonies.
• On June 25, 1975, Mozambique attained independence with Samora Machel as the first president.

Problems Faced by FRELIMO:

1. Operating from exile, complicating effective operations.
2. Lack of adequate finance.
3. Internal divisions and rivalry (e.g., COREMO breaking away).
4. Poor weapons and lack of proper training for freedom fighters.
5. The Catholic church viewed FRELIMO fighters as terrorists and was reluctant to support them.
6. Shortage of food, clothes, medicine, and other supplies.
7. The assassination of Eduardo Mondlane in 1969 was a setback.

The history of South Africa is characterized by a conflict between Afrikaner (Boer) Nationalism and African/non-white nationalism. Black Africans struggled against minority whites (Boers) for inclusion in government.

Course of Nationalism in South Africa:

• First whites were Boers (Dutch) in 1652; British became interested post-Berlin Conference.
• This led to the Great Trek and Anglo-Boer wars.
• In 1910, Britain granted independence to the union of Dutch and British migrants, excluding Black Africans.
• In 1912, the African Native Congress (later African National Congress - ANC in 1923) was formed as the first strong anti-apartheid movement.
• In 1943, the ANC Youth League mobilized for civil disobedience.
• In 1959, the Pan African Congress organized peaceful demonstrations against oppressive policies like pass laws, leading to the Sharpeville Massacre of 1960.
• After 1960, African nationalism went underground due to political party bans, and 'Umkhonto We Sizwe' (spear of the nation) was formed.
• In 1990, President Fredrick de Klerk lifted the ban on anti-apartheid movements and released political prisoners, including Nelson Mandela.
• In April 1994, the first multi-racial elections were held, with the ANC winning by a landslide.
• On May 10, 1994, Nelson Mandela became the first African president of South Africa.

Notable Nationalists in the Liberation of South Africa:

• Nelson Mandela
• Pixley Ka Isaka Seme
• Rev. John Dube
• Walter Sisulu
• Steve Biko
• Oliver Tambo
• Robert Sobukwe
• Archbishop Desmond Tutu
• Albert Luthuli
• Mongosuthu Buthelezi

Methods Used by Africans in the Liberation:

1. Armed revolts through ANC's military wing 'Umkhonto We Sizwe'.
2. Street demonstrations.
3. Strikes and boycotts by African workers.
4. International forums to lobby for economic sanctions against apartheid.
5. Church leaders and international musicians condemned the apartheid regime.
6. Hunger strikes by nationalists in jail.
7. Through the mass media (e.g., newspapers).

Jomo Kenyatta (born Kamau wa Ngengi in the early 1890s) was the first President of the Republic of Kenya and a leading nationalist.

Early Life:

• Born in Gatundu in the early 1890s, real name Kamau wa Ngengi.
• Parents: Muigai wa Ngengi and Wambui.
• Spent early life at Dagoretti with his maternal grandfather Kung’u wa Magana.
• Joined Thogoto Mission School for elementary education.
• Worked as a clerk with the Municipal Council of Nairobi.
• Acquired the name "Kenyatta" from a heavily beaded Maasai belt he wore.

Political Career:

• Began as a member of the Kikuyu Central Association (KCA).
• Became Secretary of KCA and editor of its newspaper, Muiguithania, which published articles about African grievances.
• Travelled to London in 1929 to present Kikuyu grievances to the colonial government.
• Wrote articles in the Daily Worker about alienated African land and Harry Thuku's arrest.
• Worked to strengthen KCA and represented its demands to the Hilton Young Commission.
• Published his famous book, "Facing Mt Kenya".
• Returned to Kenya in 1946 and became involved in the struggle for independence.

Contribution to the Struggle for Independence:

• Became President of Kenya African Union (KAU) after James Gichuru stepped down.
• Member of the Pan-African Movement.
• Believed in constitutional reforms rather than violence for independence.
• Conducted rallies across the country to foster nationalism and unite communities.
• Mau Mau activities led to the declaration of State of Emergency in October 1952, and Kenyatta was arrested with other KAU leaders.
• He and five other KAU leaders (Paul Ngei, Bildad Kaggia, Kung'u Karumba, Achieng Oneko, Fred Kubai) were sentenced to seven years in Kapenguria prison, known as the "Kapenguria Six".

Road to Independence:

• In 1961, KANU won elections but refused to form the government until Kenyatta was released.
• Kenyatta was set free in 1961 and became KANU president.
• In 1962, he attended the second Lancaster House Conference to discuss Kenya's independence constitution.
• In June 1963, KANU won the general elections, and Kenya attained internal self government with Kenyatta as the first Prime Minister.
• On December 12, 1963, Kenya attained independence with Kenyatta as the first president.
• On December 12, 1964, Kenya became a Republic.
• Kenyatta ruled until his death on August 22, 1978.

The late Professor Wangari Muta Maathai was a renowned Kenyan leader known for her efforts in environmental conservation. She died on September 25, 2011, at age 71.

Early Life:

• Born in Tetu, Nyeri in 1940.
• Attended Ihithe, St. Cecelia primary schools, and Loreto Limuru Girls for secondary education.
• Obtained a degree in Biological sciences from Mount St. Scholastica College, USA, in 1964.
• Earned a Master of Science degree from the University of Pittsburg in 1966.
• Obtained a PhD from the University of Nairobi in 1971, becoming the first woman in East and Central Africa to acquire a doctorate degree.
• Became chairperson of the Department of Veterinary Anatomy (1976) and an Associate Professor (1977) at the University of Nairobi, the first woman to attain these positions in the region.
• Resigned from teaching in 1982 to join political activism and active politics.

Contributions:

• Actively involved in the National Council of Women in Kenya (1976-1987).
• Served as chairperson of the National Christian Council of Women (1981-1987), where she introduced the idea of community tree planting.
• Formed the Green Belt Movement, which has planted 40 million trees on community lands.
• Established the Pan African Green Belt network in 1986, spreading tree planting ideas to other African countries (Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Lesotho, Ethiopia, Zimbabwe).
• Launched the Jubilee 2000 coalition in 1988, advocating for the cancellation of unpayable debts of poor African countries.
• Campaigned against land grabbing and illegal allocation of forests.
• Internationally recognized for her struggle for democracy, human rights, and environmental conservation.

Achievements:

• Nobel Peace Prize in 2004.
• Received the Sophie Prize, Petra Kelly Prize for environment, and Sterling Morton in 2004.
• Other awards include the Wango Environment Award (2003), Outstanding Vision and Commitment Award (2002), Hunger Projects Africa Prize for Leadership (1991), and The Women of the World (1989).
• Received honorary doctorate degrees from several institutions, including Williams College (1990), Hobart and William Smith College (1994), University of Norway (1997), and Yale University (2004).
• Successfully campaigned against the construction of a 60-storey building at Uhuru Park and stopped the acquisition of forest land by private developers.
• Elected as Member of Parliament for Tetu Constituency in December 2002.
• Served as Assistant Minister for Environment and Natural Resources from 2003 to 2007 in Kenya's Ninth Parliament.

The Legislature is responsible for making and amending the laws that govern the country. It is made up of two chambers: The National Assembly and the Senate.

Composition of the National Assembly:

The National Assembly has 350 members, including the Speaker:

• 290 elected members from constituencies.
• 47 women, one elected from each county.
• 12 members nominated by parliamentary political parties based on their strength.
• Speaker who is an ex-officio member.

Composition of the Senate:

The Senate has 68 members, including the Speaker:

• 47 members, each elected from a county.
• 16 women nominated by political parties.
• Two members (a man and a woman) representing the youth.
• Two members (a man and a woman) representing persons with disabilities.
• The Speaker (ex-officio).

Eligibility for Election as a Member of Parliament:

A person is eligible if they:

• Are a registered voter.
• Meet education, moral, and ethical standards set by Parliament.
• Are nominated by a political party or are an independent candidate supported by at least 1,000 registered voters (for NA) or 2,000 (for Senate).
• Are not a state or public officer.
• Are not a member of the Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission (IEBC) for the last five years.
• Have been a Kenyan citizen for at least 10 years.
• Are of sound mind.
• Are not bankrupt.
• Are not a member of the county assembly.

Disqualification of a Member of Parliament:

A person is disqualified if they:

• Are a state or public officer.
• Have been an IEBC member within five years before the election.
• Have not been a Kenyan citizen for at least 10 years immediately before the election date.
• Are a member of the county assembly.
• Are of unsound mind.
• Are declared bankrupt.
• Are subject to a sentence of imprisonment of at least six months by registration or election date.
• Have misused or abused a state or public office.

Circumstances for a Parliamentary Seat to be Declared Vacant (leading to by-election):

• Death of a sitting MP.
• Absence for eight consecutive sittings without Speaker's permission.
• Resignation in writing to the Speaker.
• Resignation from the sponsoring political party.
• An independent MP joins a political party.
• Cessation of Kenyan citizenship.
• If the electorate recalls the MP.
• If one becomes insane or is declared bankrupt.
• If MP is imprisoned for more than six months or abuses public/state office.
• If one becomes a member of the county assembly.

Process of Election:

• Kenyan elections occur every five years.
• In case of war, Parliament can prolong its life for up to 6 months with a 2/3 majority resolution.
• For a by-election, the respective Speaker notifies the IEBC within 21 days, and the by-election must be held within 90 days of notification.

Functions of Parliament:

• National Assembly Functions:
  1. Represents people of the constituency.
  2. Makes and amends laws.
  3. Determines allocation of national revenue between levels of government.
  4. Appropriates funds for National Government expenditure.
  5. Checks the executive and other government arms.
  6. Approves declarations of war and extension of state of emergency.
• Senate Functions:
  1. Represents the interests of the counties.
  2. Makes laws concerning counties.
  3. Determines the allocation of national revenue among counties.
  4. Participates in the oversight of state officers.
  5. Has the last vote on consideration to remove the president or deputy president from office.

Parliamentary Supremacy:

The Parliament of Kenya is supreme, above the Executive and Judiciary.

• Parliamentary programmes and debates cannot be taken to court.
• The Executive cannot manipulate debates.
• Parliament makes laws that affect everybody nationwide.
• Parliament controls government revenue and expenditure.
• Each parliament session is independent and cannot be legally bound by predecessors or successors.
• A member cannot be arrested for anything said in parliament.
• An MP cannot be arrested for a crime committed outside while inside parliament premises.
• Parliament has terminative powers (can pass a vote of no confidence on the executive).
• It is Parliament that declares war in consultation with the president.

The National Executive comprises the President, the Deputy President, the Cabinet, and Public Service.

Powers and Functions of the President:

1. Is the head of state and government.
2. Is the Commander-in-Chief of the defence forces.
3. Is the chairperson of the National Security Council.
4. Is the symbol of National Unity.
5. Officially opens parliament after General Elections.
6. Chairs Cabinet meetings.
7. Appoints Cabinet members with the approval of the National Assembly.
8. Ensures that the international obligations of the Republic are fulfilled.
9. Performs other executive functions, such as establishing offices in the public service.

Functions of the Deputy President:

• Is the principal assistant of the president.
• Deputizes for the president in the execution of functions.
• Acts as the president when the president is absent or temporarily incapacitated.
• Cannot hold any other state or public office.

Composition and Functions of the Cabinet:

• Composition: Consists of the president, the deputy president, cabinet secretaries, and the Attorney General. It must have between fourteen and twenty-two cabinet secretaries.
• Cabinet secretaries should not hold any other state or public office.
• The Secretary to the Cabinet takes minutes and links the Cabinet with the public service.
• Functions:
  1. Advisory role: Advises the president on government policies; Cabinet Secretaries advise on their ministries' affairs.
  2. Defending government policy: Has collective responsibility to defend government policies.
  3. Make presentations/clarify issues to National Assembly or Senate.
  4. Uphold the constitution and act according to it.
  5. Provide Parliament with full and regular reports concerning matters under their control.

Functions of the Attorney General:

• Appointed by the President with National Assembly approval.
• Is the principal legal advisor of the government.
• Represents the National government in court and other legal proceedings.
• Promotes and upholds the rule of law and defends public interest.

Functions of the Director of Public Prosecutions:

• Nominated and appointed by the president with National Assembly approval.
• Holds office for an 8-year non-renewable term.
• Directs the Inspector General of the National Police Service to investigate criminal conduct.
• Institutes and undertakes criminal proceedings against any person before any court.
• Protects the interests of administration of justice and prevents abuse of the legal process.

Composition and Functions of Public Service:

• Composition: Headed by the Secretary to the Public Service Commission (PSC), composed of Principal Secretaries, State Departments, and Public Servants.
• An Independent Public Service Commission ensures effective functions.
• Functions of PSC:
  1. Establish and abolish offices in the public service.
  2. Appoint persons to hold or act in those offices and confirm appointments.
  3. Exercise disciplinary control and remove persons holding or acting in those offices.
  4. Investigate, monitor, and evaluate administration and personnel practices.
  5. Develop human resources in the Public Service.
  6. Evaluate and report to the president and parliament on the performance of the commission.

National Security Organs:

There are three organs of National Security:

1. Kenya Defence Forces (KDF).
2. National Intelligence Services (NIS).
3. National Police Service (NPS).

• Kenya Defence Forces (KDF):
  1. Composition: Kenya Army, Kenya Air Force, Kenya Navy.
  2. Functions: Defence and protection of sovereignty and territorial integrity; assists and cooperates in emergencies or disasters; may be deployed to restore peace.
• National Intelligence Services (NIS):
  1. Functions: Provides security intelligence to enhance national security; performs other functions prescribed by national legislature.
• National Police Service (NPS):
  1. Composition: Kenya Police Service and Administration Police Service.
  2. Functions: Maintaining highest standards of professionalism and discipline; preventing corruption and promoting transparency; complying with constitutional standards of human rights; training staff; fostering relationships with broader society.

Correctional Services:

Government institutions charged with rehabilitating convicted criminals.

• Functions: Complimenting national security organs; containing prisoners; executing court orders; offering security to convicts; rehabilitating and reforming convicts; looking after prisoners' welfare (health, food, shelter); providing labour for national government projects.

The Judiciary consists of Judges, Magistrates, and other Judicial Officers, with the Chief Justice as its head.

Structure of the Court Systems in Kenya:

1. The Supreme Court: Highest court.
2. The Court of Appeal: Second highest court.
3. The High Court: Third highest court.

The above three are referred to as Superior Courts.

4. The Subordinate Courts: Comprise Magistrates Courts, Kadhis Courts, and the Courts Martial.

• Parliament is empowered to establish other subordinate courts and tribunals.
• Kadhis Courts deal with issues concerning marriage, divorce, and inheritance for Muslims.

Functions of the Judiciary:

1. Interpreting the application of laws in Kenya.
2. Adjudicating in both criminal and civil court cases.
3. Settling disputes between conflicting parties or institutions.
4. Protecting the constitutional rights and freedoms of individuals.
5. Collecting fines imposed on those found guilty.
6. Administering the swearing-in of senior government officials (e.g., the president).

Specific Court Functions:

• Supreme Court: Hears and determines cases challenging the election of the president; hears appeals from the Court of Appeal.
• Court of Appeal: Hears appeals from the High Court and tribunals.
• High Court: Has supervisory powers over the subordinate courts.

Concept of the Rule of Law:

• Entails handling all legal matters in accordance with the law.
• All Kenyans are subject to and governed by the same laws, regardless of status, colour, or religion.
• Stipulates that no person is above the law.
• Matters pertaining to law are dealt with according to the law.
• A person is presumed innocent until proved guilty in a court of law.

Concept of Natural Justice:

• Stresses that a suspect should be treated fairly by the courts.
• Principles upheld before judgment:
  1. The accused person is given the right to a fair trial.
  2. Suspected persons are presumed innocent until proven guilty.
  3. This concept discourages mob justice.
  4. An accused person is entitled to legal representation.
  5. A suspect is given an opportunity to defend himself or herself and call for witnesses.
  6. All judicial decisions are based on law.