FORM TWO Notes

Barter Trade:

The oldest method, involving the direct exchange of goods for other goods, or services for goods, without an established medium of exchange. For example, ancient Ghana exchanged gold for salt with North Africa.

Currency Trade:

Involves the use of money as an acceptable and convenient medium of exchange and measure of value. Historically, items like cowrie shells, iron bars, bronze, salt, gold, and silver were used as money before modern currencies. Major world currencies include the US Dollar, Euro, British Sterling Pound, and Japanese Yen.

Local Trade:

Exchange of goods within the same community at the village level, or with neighboring communities sharing a common boundary.

• Origin: Emerged when early humans adopted settled lifestyles, facilitated by the need to acquire what one lacked and by environmental differences.
• Development: Grew with human population increase, leading to demand for various items and specialization (e.g., blacksmiths, pastoralists, cultivators). Markets were established at convenient places with set market days.
• Organisation: Initially barter, later currency was introduced. Goods were transported on heads/backs, or by animals like donkeys (Maasai, Kamba) and camels (Somali, Boran). Local leaders provided security. Some local merchants resold goods further afield, like ivory from Samburu to the coast for shipment to Asia.
• Impact: Led to intermarriages, community unity, acquisition of needed goods, laid basis for regional and international trade, developed trading skills (e.g., Chief Kivoi), and facilitated language and cultural exchange through interaction.

Regional Trade (Trans-Saharan Trade):

Exchange of goods within a specified part of a continent or region, involving a larger geographical area and more traders than local trade.

• Origin: Not precisely known, but active between 1000AD and 1500AD. Trade existed before the Sahara became a desert and was revolutionized by the introduction of camels in the 1st century AD.
• Development Factors: Availability and high demand for commodities (e.g., gold from Wangara, Bure, Budu; salt from Targhaza, Taodeni, Ghadames). West African rulers provided security. Desert Tuaregs acted as guides (takshifs), provided food, water, accommodation, interpreters, and security. Established trade routes and professional merchants existed. Sufficient capital and a foundation from existing local trade also contributed.
• Obstacles: Traders lost direction, attacks by desert robbers (Tuaregs turned robbers), sandstorms, extreme weather variations, long distances, dangerous desert creatures, communication barriers (Tuaregs became unreliable), and lack of adequate basic needs like food and water.
• Organisation: Conducted by West African (e.g., ancient Ghana, Mali, Songhai) and North African people (Tuaregs, Berbers, Arabs, later Europeans and Jewish traders). Traders traveled in large caravans (up to 1000 camels, hundreds of people) for security, taking about three months to cross. Stopping places at oases provided supplies. Trade was mainly barter, with goods sometimes given on credit to local agents. West African rulers controlled trade, provided security, and collected taxes. Merchants stored goods at distribution centers and typically traveled one way per year. Problems included long distances, insufficient supplies, hostile communities, sandstorms, losing direction, dangerous creatures, shifting routes, and robberies.
• Impact: Led to urbanization (Gao, Timbuktu, Jenne), decline of some empires (Ghana, Mali) and emergence of others (Songhai), introduction of Islamic religion/culture, intermarriages, emergence of wealthy merchants, new cultures (eating habits, dressing), foreign architectural designs, establishment of diplomatic ties, growth of agricultural production, introduction of Sharia laws, and exposed Africa to the outside world.
• Decline: Began in the 15th century and disintegrated by the 19th century due to: exhaustion of gold mines in Western Sudan, Moroccan invasion in the 16th century creating insecurity, political instability and decline of empires (Mali, Songhai), Almoravid and Tuareg invasions, Tuaregs becoming robbers, emergence of the Trans-Atlantic trade diverting traders and goods, Turkish invasion of North Africa, European colonization reducing regional links and exploiting resources, British anti-slave trade pressure, rivalry between caravans, Spanish/Portuguese invasion of Moroccan ports, and European merchants penetrating the interior of West Africa.

International Trade (Trans-Atlantic Trade):

Trade between nations, particularly those in different continents not part of one geographical region, before the mid-20th century.

• Origin: Started after Portuguese exploration of West African coast in 15th century and Christopher Columbus's voyage to Americas. Colonization of Americas by Portuguese and Spanish led to mining and sugar plantations, creating a need for labor after attempts with Red Indians failed. Increased demand for sugar, tobacco, and cotton in Europe spurred plantation growth and demand for African laborers, who were considered suited due to their ability to work in hot climates, resistance to tropical diseases, and tolerance for physical hardships.
• Development: First slaves taken in 1442. Portuguese were initial leaders, followed by the Dutch in the 17th century, and the British dominated in the 18th century. Accelerated by demand for precious stones, sugar, cotton, tobacco in Europe, and firearms, cloth, alcohol, utensils, etc., in West Africa.
• Development Factors: Availability and high demand for commodities in all three continents. Natural harbors on West African coast. West African rulers provided security. Enterprising merchants in America, Europe, and West Africa. Efficient transport by steamships and new knowledge of navigation. Decline of Trans-Saharan trade diverted goods to West African coastal markets.
• Organisation: Organized as a triangle connecting Europe, Africa, and America, involving European traders, African middlemen, and American plantation owners. Ships from Europe carried manufactured goods (firearms, cloth, alcohol) to West Africa, exchanged for slaves, ivory, and other commodities. Slaves were captured inland and held along the coast for shipment. In Americas, slaves were sold, and ships loaded with indigo, cotton, tobacco, rum, sugar, rice, timber, gold, and silver for European markets.
• How Slaves were Obtained: Raids, kidnapping free men, capturing defeated people in inter-community wars, leaders selling criminals/innocent subjects, bartering for commodities, enticing children/women with sweets, weaker states forced to pay tribute with slaves, and people failing to pay debts sold or surrendered family members.
• Impact: Immense pain and suffering for Africans (captured, chained, beaten), incalculable deaths (estimated 20 million), decline in local industries (loss of labor, cheap manufactured goods), changes in chiefs' roles (selling their people), intensification of warfare (firearms), emergence of wealthy slave merchants (Jaja of Opobo, Nana of Isekri), rise and expansion of states (Asante, Benin, Oyo, Dahomey), expansion of urban centers along the West African coast (Whydah, Accra), depopulation in some raided areas, intermarriages creating half-castes (mulatto), development of European goods taste, decline of weaker kingdoms, emergence of powerful rulers (King Geso), destruction of property, development of agricultural plantations in Americas, rise of African descent people in Americas ("American Negroes"), and ultimately, West Africa's colonization.
• Decline: Occurred in the 19th century due to: Industrial Revolution in USA reducing need for slave labor (machines), humanitarian movements and Christian missionaries (e.g., Sir William Wilberforce, Dr. Livingstone) advocating abolition as unjust/inhuman. Economists arguing free labor was more productive and for retaining Africans to produce raw materials and serve as markets. Decline of plantation economy in America/Caribbean reduced demand, and slave resistance.

Land Transport:

Movement on land by walking or using tamed animals to pull carts/wagons. The invention of the wheel eased transport, moved war chariots and agricultural carts, facilitated trade and wars, sped up travel, and allowed movement of bulky loads. Wheeled vehicles were pulled by horses, donkeys, and oxen.

• Human Transport: Carrying goods on backs, shoulders, or heads, sometimes using shoulder poles. Slave traders forced slaves to carry ivory. Still exists today (e.g., Kenyan women carrying firewood).
• Animal Transport: Using domesticated animals (beasts of burden/pack animals) to carry loads or pull vehicles. Donkeys (Maasai, Kamba in Kenya), oxen (for ploughing, transport), horses (for soldiers, chariots), camels (efficient in deserts, used in Trans-Saharan trade), elephants, water buffaloes, dogs, and Llamas were used.

Water Transport:

Began for crossing rivers/lakes for food. Early vessels were hollowed tree trunks (dug-out canoes) or rafts of animal skins/reeds for shallow waters. Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Greeks built early ships for seas/oceans. Arabs built dhows driven by wind.

Road Transport:

Romans introduced high-quality, durable, well-drained roads. British engineers (George Wade, John Macadam, Thomas Telford) constructed better roads in 17th/18th centuries. Invention of pneumatic tires (Dunlop) and steam power engines revolutionized land transport. Etienne Lenoir (France) invented the first internal combustion engine. Nicholas Otto (Germany) invented the four-stroke compression engine. Gottlieb Daimler (Germany) invented an efficient petrol engine, making the first motorcycle and petrol car. Karl Benz and Henry Ford followed. Modern cars are high-speed, leading to accidents. Kenya government measures (2004) included seat belts, speed governors (80 km/h for PSVs), reduced carrying capacity, permanent employment, uniforms/badges, and good conduct certificates for PSV drivers/conductors.

Railway Transport:

Wooden rails used by Germans, later replaced by iron. Richard Trevithick made the first steam engine on a truck. George Stephenson (England) invented the powerful steam locomotive "The Rocket". Diesel (Rudolf Diesel) and electric engines (Siemens brothers) were later designed. European colonialists developed railways in Africa in 19th/20th centuries.

Water Transport:

Early sailing ships were wood, propelled by wind. William Symington (Scotland) built a paddle-wheel steamship. Robert Fulton (America) built the steamship "Clermont". Internal combustion engines replaced coal power. Iron and steel ships replaced wooden ones from 1881. Propellers replaced paddle wheels (1840s) for faster ships. Americans built nuclear-powered submarines (1953-1962). Modern ships have powerful engines and resist strong waves.

Air Transport:

Began with balloons, followed by hydrogen-filled airships (flammable). The Wright brothers made the first petrol-engine aeroplane, aiding WWI development. Jet planes developed for high-speed passenger transport.

Space Exploration:

Soviet Union launched first satellite (1957). USA sent satellites (1961). Yuri Gagarin (Soviet Union) was first man in space. Neil Armstrong (USA) was first man on the moon (1969). Many countries now engage in space exploration (e.g., USA's Space Shuttle program).

• General Uses: Informed community members, alerted people to dangers (e.g., approaching enemies during war), and enabled distant relatives to keep in touch.

Smoke Signals:

Lit fires on visible areas (hills); smoke conveyed information quickly.

Drum Beats:

Special drums produced different sounds to convey messages. Buganda and Ibo of Nigeria used talking drums for events like deaths/festivals.

Messengers:

People delivered oral messages, sometimes in relay groups (runners). Provided community awareness and informed rulers of enemies.

Horn Blowing:

Widely used in African communities for important messages, calling meetings, gathering warriors/hunters, and alerting about ceremonies (e.g., circumcision among Chuka).

Written Messages on Scrolls and Stone Tablets:

Scrolls (rolls of papyrus/paper around wood) used in Egypt, Greece, China, Japan (e.g., Old Testament Bible). Stone tablets (shaped stones with writing) also used (e.g., Ten Commandments). Wet clay tablets used (cuneiform in Mesopotamia).

Telephone:

Invented by Alexander Graham Bell (1875), improved by Thomas Edison. Converts speech to electric vibrations and back. Provides quick communication with immediate feedback. Now competes with mobile phones.

Cellphone (Mobile Phone):

Uses radio waves. Service providers use transmitter-receivers to detect and send signals. Convenient and usable anywhere with network.

Television:

Developed with the cathode ray tube. Provides news with sound and pictures, educational programs, and entertainment. Started with black and white, then color.

Radio:

First wireless messages by Guglielimo Marconi (electromagnetic signals). Transmission of speech by radio waves followed. First radio broadcasts in Britain (Marconi Company, 1920) and America (Westinghouse Company, 1920). BBC began transmissions in 1922, and in Kenya in 1928.

Telegraph:

Invented by Charles Wheatstone and William Coke (1837). Initial wires along railway lines for alerts. Samuel Morse improved it with Morse Code (dots and dashes) for telegrams. In Kenya, wires laid during Kenya-Uganda railway construction.

Electronic Mail (E-mail):

Allows computer users to exchange messages globally via a network. Each user has a mailbox address. Messages arrive in seconds.

Facsimile Transreceivers (Fax):

Transmits written information (drawings, diagrams, maps) exactly as original via telegraphic/telephone wire to a similar machine. Sender makes phone contact, presses button; drums on both ends revolve, producing photographic copy in ~30 seconds.

Telex:

Uses a teleprinter to print and send messages instantly. Machines are on all day; subscribers type numbers to connect. Information typed is automatically reproduced in typescript at receiving end. Used worldwide for urgent messages.

Pager:

Device to locate a person for a telephone message and immediate reply. Sends a beeping signal. Common for mobile workers.

Internet:

Global computer network of thousands of networks. Millions of computers connected, growing rapidly. No single owner, but organizations set technical standards. Private companies own backbone. Uses Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). Services: Shopping, broadcasting, collaboration, file transfer, email, information browsing via software/data. Allows data transfer and using other computers across network. Growing popular in Kenya for global interaction.

• Improved global communication (within countries, between countries, citizens/governments, individuals).
• Improved travel (pilots/ships/planes communicate with control stations).
• Promoted trade (speed/efficiency of business transactions via advertisements).
• Mass entertainment (radio/television), keeping people busy during leisure.
• Created employment opportunities.
• Used in modern warfare for communication/information.
• Enabled astronomers to explore outer space/conduct research (satellite communication).
• Increased learning from TV/radio programs.
• Facilitated cultural interaction/learning other cultures.
• Enabled direct/fast message delivery (telephone, telex, fax, email).
• Computers/Internet enabled information storage and global access to data.

Newspapers:

Written messages on local/foreign events. Before regular papers, news spread by word of mouth, short letters, or notice boards. Germans first (Gutenberg's printing press, 1440). Britain's first was Daily Courant (1702), widespread after 1861. Printed daily/weekly, contain news, ads, articles. Examples in Kenya: Daily Nation, East African Standard, Sunday Nation.

Magazines:

Resemble newspapers but less frequent (weekly, fortnightly, monthly, quarterly). Cover articles, stories, announcements. Jomo Kenyatta edited "Muigwithania". Examples in Kenya: Kenya Gazette, Parents, Weekly Review.

Journals:

Newspapers on specialized subjects (trade, medicine, education, science, history). Published at intervals (e.g., The Journal of African History).

Periodicals:

Magazines or other publications published at regular intervals (weekly/monthly).

Wood:

Used for cooking, heating, charcoal (for smelting iron), and generating steam for engines/ships.

Wind:

Used for pumping water (mines/wells), winnowing grains, driving ships/boats (Arab dhows), operating windmills, and flying balloons.

Water:

Provided energy for spinning/weaving machines, grinding flour (water mills), operating water pumps, and producing steam power.

Bronze:

Alloy of copper and tin. Used for weapons (daggers, arrowheads, swords, axes, spears), tools (chisels, hoes), ornaments, utensils, containers, sculptures, musical instruments, and decorating palaces/constructing pyramids in Egypt.

Gold:

Attractive metal, used by rulers for palace decoration (sign of wealth), Asante Kingdom rulers considered it sole property. Used for ornaments, sculptures, important trade commodity (Mwene Mtapa, Kilwa minted coins), knife handles, utensils, and containers.

Copper:

Found in Egypt, Zaire, Zambia. Used for ornaments (bangles), tools (needles), minting coins (wealth/exchange), utensils, decorating palaces, making brass/bronze alloys, water pipes in Egypt, and weapons.

Iron:

Early working centers: Meroe, Nok, Taruga, Axum, Korotoro, Kwale, Kavirondo gulf. Famous for tools (hoes, knives, axes, cattle bells, jingles). Widely used for high-quality weapons (daggers, swords, spearheads, arrowheads, stabbing knives). Gold sculptures made in Nok/Taruga. Bantu associated with spread of iron working technology.

• Impact of Iron Working Technology Spread: More land cultivated (better tools), increased trade (blacksmiths/cultivators), encouraged migrations (confidence to conquer, guaranteed security), expanded communities (Nubia, Mwene Mtapa, Buganda, Axum, Ancient Ghana), encouraged wars (superior weapons), fostered job specialization, increased food production, attracted people to mining centers (urbanization), improved defense systems, displaced/assimilated weak communities, and in some areas, iron became a medium of exchange.

Coal:

Main source in 19th century. Heated water for steam (driving water pumps in mines, steamships, locomotives), heating/lighting houses. Today: generating electricity, industrial power.

Oil (Petroleum):

Popular during Industrial Revolution. Initially for lamps. After Gottlieb Daimler invented internal combustion engine, used for motor vehicles. Also for lubricating machines, generating thermal electricity. Chinese/Indians used it as medicine. Today: drugs, synthetics, plastics, fertilizers.

Steam:

Produced by heating water to high temperatures. Uses: Driving heavy factory machines, pumping water from mines, driving steam vehicles/trains/locomotives/ships/boats, and operating spinning/weaving machines.

Electricity:

Two forms: Hydro-electricity (from moving water) and Thermal electricity (burning oil/coal to produce steam). Uses: Driving industrial machines, lighting houses, driving electric trains/cars, heating houses, powering radios/TVs/cinemas/computers, powering refrigerators/cookers, welding, boiling water, and fencing game parks.

Factors:

• Rich coal mines (power, export)
• Good transport/communication
• Sufficient capital
• Abundant raw materials (coal, iron, cotton)
• Long period of peace/political stability
• Strong/superior army (defended waters)
• Advanced insurance/banking systems
• Free trade policy (no tariffs)
• Enterprising merchants
• Well-developed cottage industries (basis for take-off)
• Adequate skilled/unskilled labor
• Acquisition of overseas colonies (raw materials/external markets)
• Rapid population growth (expanded internal market)
• Technological advancement/inventions
• Availability of coal energy
• Agrarian Revolution (sufficient food for workers)

Effects (19th century):

• Social: Stimulated rural-urban migration (seeking employment), expansion of industrial centers/urbanization, raised standards of living for many Britons (income), sharpened social stratification (class struggle), poor living conditions for factory workers (slums, overcrowding, poor ventilation), low wages, exploitation of labor (children/women worked long hours), unemployment (machines replacing manual labor), increased crime (robbery, prostitution), outbreaks of diseases (dysentery, cholera, tuberculosis).
• Economic: Expansion of banking/insurance, enormous expansion of local/international trade (manufactured goods sold to Britons, surplus to Europe/colonies; raw materials from colonies), encouragement of colonialism (acquiring raw materials for industries), development of agricultural production in Britain/USA/colonies (food for workers, lubricating oil from palm oil, cotton for textiles).
• Environmental: Industrial machines produced fumes (pollution), excessive noise (deafness).

Characteristics:

• Industrial research led to discoveries (e.g., Henry Bessemer's steel conversion)
• Electricity/petroleum became important energy sources
• Improved transport/communication
• Increased exploitation of coal/iron ore
• Agricultural improvements (food for urban dwellers, raw materials)
• Mass production/new inventions

Problems for Industrial Workers:

• Low wages (poor living conditions)
• Exposure to dangerous machines/noise/chemicals (injuries, suffocation, accidents, deaths)
• Diseases (typhoid, cholera, dysentery, tuberculosis)
• Women/children toiled long hours (denied leisure/rest)
• Polluted environment (improper waste disposal)
• Overcrowded housing (inadequate lighting/ventilation)
• Increased crime rates due to poverty
• Lack of insurance

Effects of Industrial Revolution in Europe:

• Social: Stimulated rural-urban migration, increased urbanization (employment, trade, transport development, machines in cottage industry), raised living standards.
• Economic: Scramble for colonies (raw materials, markets, investment), expansion of factories (instead of cottage industries), establishment of banking/insurance, created employment opportunities (mechanics, engineers), rise of trade unionism, replacement of human labor by machines, mass production/export, stimulated local/international trade, promoted agriculture (food for workers).
• Environmental: Pollution (fumes), overcrowding, crime.
• Political: Caused unemployment in some countries.

USA:

Led in industrialization for long. Britons migrating to America stimulated early industrialization.

• Factors: Abundant natural resources (iron ore, coal, forestry), adequate skilled/unskilled labor (including slaves for raw materials), sufficient energy (coal, iron ore, later uranium, petroleum, electricity, natural gas), developed transport/communication, technological advancement (discoveries/inventions), banks/insurance, government encouraged foreign investors, adequate capital (local, foreign), long political stability (late entry into world wars, few strikes), plantation agriculture (initial raw materials for heavy industries), intensive research (science/universities emphasized industrial development), government policies favored home market (discouraged tariffs on local goods), strong agricultural base (food for workers, raw materials for processing industries).
• Effects: Improved living standards (government supports unemployed), diversified economy (agriculture/industry), boosted industrial technology (science/research), became major world power (after USSR break), mechanized agriculture (increased yields, sufficient food), participated in space exploration (Neil Armstrong), earned foreign currency (abundant foreign reserve, donor state), US businessmen invested locally, developed military might, encouraged urbanization, created job opportunities, and caused environmental pollution.

Germany:

Industrialized in 19th century, second to USA by 1900.

• Factors: Creation of German customs union (Zollverein) unifying Germans, large raw material deposits (iron ore from Alsace-Lorraine, coal from Ruhr/Saar), US Marshall Plan aid (post-WWII reconstruction), rapid population growth (labor), well-developed transport/communication (railways, roads, canals), government support (encouraged local investment, protective tariffs, subsidies), pre-WWII industrial base revived, political stability (post-WWII), sufficient coal power, markets in South America/Far East, education emphasized science/technology (skilled manpower), second unification (East/West Germany) widened industrial output, and improved agricultural techniques (raw materials).
• Impact: Improved living standards/purchasing power, developed transport/communication network, became strong power (sought colonies), diversified economy (vehicles, machinery, chemicals, electronics, textiles), created employment (Germany, neighboring states), growth of urban centers (Berlin, Warsaw), boosted foreign reserve, boosted local/international trade, and reduced inflation.

Japan:

Industrialization began second half of 19th century after US trade treaties. Compulsory education and universities established, students sponsored abroad. Fought wars (China, Russia, WWI, WWII) but recovered economically.

• Factors: Enough capital (including US aid post-WWII), ready internal/external markets, long political stability (post-WWII), transport/communication network (railways, roads), improved pre-WWI industrial base, available power (coal, uranium, hydro-electric), readily available skilled/unskilled labor, abundant raw materials (iron ore, coal), hardworking people, high-quality/cheap goods (encouraged markets), natural harbors (trade), political neutrality (post-WWII), new taxation for industrialization, government encouraged home market (tariffs on foreign goods), and encouraged foreign/local investment.
• Effects: Improved living standards, boosted foreign reserve, recognized as developed industrial country, diversified economy (from agriculture to industry), promoted trade (locally manufactured ships), created job opportunities, developed better transport/communications, and manufactured goods preferred for high quality/cheapness.

Brazil:

Industrialization began late 19th century, developed tremendously.

• Factors: Large mineral deposits (iron ore, gold, bauxite, manganese), wood/agricultural products as raw materials, government capital, US technical/financial aid (e.g., Volta/Rendonda steel works), cottage industries as basis, transport/communication development, encouraged foreign investors, five-year development plans, WWI/WWII encouraged mass production of cheap local goods, demand for Brazilian goods in Britain, government nationalized/supervised industries, available energy (coal, petroleum, hydro electric power), and internal market for goods.
• Obstacles: Large percentage of poor citizens (low purchasing power, cannot establish industries), inadequate transport/communication, wealth owned/controlled by majority group, population concentrated along coastal belt (labor problems in interior), constant inflation (expensive goods), accumulated foreign debts, and under-exploited resources in Amazon forest.
• Impact: Boosted foreign reserve, improved living standards (from industrial gains), increased exports, emerged as a leading industrialized third world country, encouraged modernization of port facilities, accelerated transport/communication development, created employment, and encouraged growth/expansion of urban centers (Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Recife).

South Africa:

Started agricultural, then gold/diamonds promoted industrialization. Industries included textiles, iron/steel, chemicals, cement, locomotives.

• Factors: Availability of minerals (coal, gold, diamonds, silver, iron ore), capital from mineral sales, power from coal/hydro-electricity, transport/communication network, foreign investor encouragement, skilled/unskilled labor (from neighboring states), local/international market (after 1994 independence), political stability (post-1994), high quality manufactured goods, and government supported industrialization (tariffs on imported goods).
• Hindrances: Majority Africans impoverished by colonial regime (low purchasing power), international community banned trade (no external market during apartheid), political instability during colonial rule (apartheid struggles), stiff competition from developed nations (Japan, China), and high crime rate.

India:

Colonized by Britain (cotton supplier), engaged in industrial development after independence in 1947.

• Factors: Raw materials (cotton, iron ore), well-developed infrastructure (transport/communication), existing cottage industries (basis for growth), adequate power (coal, natural gas, oil, hydro-electricity, uranium), high population (skilled/unskilled labor, internal/external markets), five-year economic plans (e.g., 1950-1955), established state enterprises/assisted private sector with loans, encouraged foreign investment, political stability (post independence), and protective tariffs on foreign goods.
• Impact: Increased foreign exchange earnings, improved living standards for some, boosted agricultural sector (farm tools/machinery manufacturing), created employment, encouraged local/international trade, spurred new urbanization/expansion of existing centers (Bombay, Karachi, New Delhi), increased revenue/diversified economy, became technologically advanced/nuclear power, developed transport/communication, provided public services (education, healthcare), and boosted cottage industries.

Early Civilizations' Contributions:

• Greeks/Egyptians: Great mathematicians (Pythagoras, Geometry, pyramids).
• Chinese: Silk cloth, gunpowder, paper.
• Indians: Introduced 'Zero' and decimal points.
• Iraq (Sumerians/Mesopotamians): Medicine, architecture, mathematics, astronomy.
• Renaissance spread scientific knowledge to Europe, leading to Agrarian/Industrial Revolutions.

Notable Scientists (from 15th century):

• Nicolas Copernicus: Earth orbits sun, rotates on axis.
• Galileo Galilei: Confirmed Copernicus's theory using telescope.
• Sir Isaac Newton: Discovered gravity, spectrum.
• Antoine Lavoisier: Air composed of hydrogen and oxygen.
• John Dalton: Atomic Theory, discovered color blindness.
• Michael Faraday: Discovered electricity, made dynamo.
• Thomas Edison: Electric lamp.
• Charles Darwin: Evolution theory.
• Edward Jenner: Smallpox vaccine.
• Louis Pasteur: Microbes cause diseases/decay, introduced pasteurization, cures for anthrax/rabies.
• Alexander Graham Bell: Invented telephone.
• George Stephenson: Invented steam locomotive.
• The Wright Brothers: Invented first aeroplane.

Important Scientific Inventions on Agriculture:

• Jethro Tull: Seed drill, horse-drawn hoe.
• Robert Bakewell: Cross-breeding for quality animals (sheep).
• Andrew Meikle: Mechanical thresher.
• Justus Von Liebig: Modern fertilizer industry (plants obtain NPK from soil).
• Cyrus McCormick: Reaper for harvesting.
• Sir John Bennet Lawes: Superphosphate factory for fertilizer.

Impact of Scientific Inventions on Agriculture:

• Increased food production (fertilizers, machinery).
• Improved farming techniques/livestock rearing (cross-breeding, seed drill).
• Reduced manual labor (unemployment).
• Easier food preservation/transport (refrigerators, canning).
• Reduced crop destruction by pests/diseases (pesticides, fungicides).
• Increased cultivated land, leading to large estates/plantation farming.
• Established scientific research centers/schools emphasizing science.
• Diversified agriculture and economy.
• Increased population growth (fertility rate rise, death rate reduction due to nutritious food).
• Rural-urban migration of unemployed (more town folk, indirectly promoted agriculture).
• Negative: Continuous fertilizer use affected soils (reduced yields), indigenous crops/livestock replaced by exotic breeds, inhaling chemicals/pesticides caused respiratory diseases/cancer.

Important Discoveries in Industry:

• Textile Industry: James Hargreaves (spinning jenny), Edmund Cartright (power loom), Samuel Crompton (spinning mule), John Key (flying shuttle), Thomas Bell (cylindrical calico printing machine), Eli Whitney (cotton gin).
• Others: Michael Faraday (electricity, dynamo), Benjamin Franklin (lightning as electricity), Otto Hahn/Stressman (nuclear energy), George Stephenson (The Rocket locomotive), James Watt (steam engine).

Impact of Scientific Inventions on Industry:

• Improved living standards (exposure to industrial goods).
• Job creation in industries (e.g., textile).
• Diversified economy (less dependence on agriculture).
• New sources of energy (solar, atomic/nuclear, electric power).
• Space exploration (rockets, satellites, digital cameras).
• Dangerous weapons (atomic/nuclear) increasing wars.
• Revolutionized transport (engines, motorcars, planes, locomotives, spare parts, oil refining).
• Reduced labor burden (machines do most work).
• Computers improved work efficiency/accuracy (banking).
• Encouraged trade (demand for manufactured goods).
• Negative: Industries cause pollution (fumes, noise, smell) and diseases (tuberculosis) in cities.
• Improved communication network (Email, Internet).
• Some countries became highly industrialized, leading to world power status.

Important Scientific Inventions and Discoveries in Medicine:

• Joseph Lister: Carbonic acid as antiseptic for surgical apparatus, antiseptic spray for clean air during operations, destroying microbes around wounds.
• William Marton: Use of chloroform (carbonic acid) during surgery.
• Edward Jenner: First vaccine for smallpox.
• Louis Pasteur: Bacteria cause disease, heat kills bacteria (pasteurization), cures for anthrax/rabies.
• Sir Ronald Ross: Anopheles mosquitoes carry malaria parasites, drainage prevents mosquito breeding.
• Rontgen: X-ray radiation (observing internal organs/bony framework).
• Alexander Flemming: Penicillin (antibiotic for coughs, pneumonia, sore throat, wounds).
• Dr. Christian Bernard: Heart transplant method.

Impact of Scientific Inventions on Medicine:

• Rapid increase in life expectancy and human population.
• Discovery of drugs to reduce pain, cure diseases.
• Invention of hospital machinery for locating/treating diseases.
• Establishment of drug manufacturing (pharmaceutical) industries, creating employment.
• Application of preventive measures (vaccination, eradication of diseases).
• Negative: Excess drug use (diseases become resistant).

Factors Influencing Scientific Inventions in Africa and Other Developing Nations:

• Inadequate capital for scientific research.
• Illiteracy (inability to apply scientific principles).
• Over-dependence on donor countries (due to poverty).
• Little emphasis on science teaching (shortage of equipment).
• Failure of governments to assist researchers (lack of funding, low priority).
• Excessive dependence on imported items (engines, pharmaceuticals, machinery) reduces importance of local research.
• Lack of initiative from researchers.

Factors for Establishment:

• Development of trade led to convergent centers (e.g., Mombasa, Kilwa).
• Development of ports/harbors (e.g., Cape Town, Malindi).
• Establishment of local industries attracted people (e.g., Meroe).
• Reliable water sources for irrigation, industry, domestic use.
• Expansion of administrative centers/palaces of rulers (subjects settled for security).
• Developed at major crossroads/trade route junctions (e.g., Tuat, Timbuktu, Sijilmasa).
• Notable religious centers attracted settlers.
• Development of early education centers (e.g., Timbuktu, Gao, Cairo).
• Development of agriculture encouraged permanent settlements (food availability).
• Secure areas sheltered from attacks attracted people.

Specific Early African Cities:

• Cairo: Modern Cairo at Nile delta, early settlements ~2000 years ago. Fatimids established walled town. By mid-14th century, a big city with mosques/palaces, religious center. Had narrow streets, bazaars, shops, crowded quarters, market. Ottoman Turks controlled until 1798 (Napoleon Bonaparte). French driven out 1801, Mohammed Ali made it capital. Modernized under Ismaili, expanded with European-style buildings. Today: largest city in Egypt, modern international airport, railway network, entertainment, museums, important religious center.
• Meroe: Ancient city, emerged at iron working site north of Khartoum. Inhabitants developed brick/plaster building style (1st century BC), white-washed/decorated palaces. Expanded when made capital of Kush (knowledge of iron working from Assyrians). Traded with Greeks (exporting ivory, slaves, animal skins, ostrich feathers, timber, gold).
• Decline of Meroe: 1st century AD, mainly due to trade rivalry from growing Axum kingdom in Ethiopia. King Ezana of Axum attacked, burnt, plundered, destroyed stores/statues.
• Kilwa: Origin associated with Persian immigrants on Indian Ocean coast. Expanded in early 13th century due to gold trade. Most important trading town on East Coast of Africa by late 13th century. Controlled coastal settlement north to Pemba Island. Walled town, minted own coins, controlled gold trade with Sofala/Zimbabwe. Inhabitants mainly Muslims. Had beautiful buildings (Great Mosque, Husuni Kubwa palace).
• Decline of Kilwa: Mid-14th century, fine buildings ruined. Mosque renovated 1420-1440. Lost glory and declined completely by late 15th century due to: dynastic quarrels, Sofala gold trade interrupted by wars, Mombasa becoming strong rival, arrival of Portuguese (attacked/conquered coastal city-states), and constant rivalries with other coastal city-states.

London:

Capital of UK, South East England.

• Origin/Growth: Existed before 1st century AD. Romans occupied Britain (1st century AD), expanded London, made it important religious center (established Christianity). Continued to expand after being burnt (1st century AD). Roman withdrawal did not affect growth. King Alfred made it capital (9th century). King William I developed it, built Tower of London, rebuilt London Bridge (stone). Slow growth during Middle Ages (wars, epidemics, commercial crisis). Grew into important city after Queen Elizabeth I opened Royal Exchange (1566 AD). Proclamation (1580 AD) prohibited new buildings near city gates. Affected by plague (1665 AD) and Great Fire (1666 AD). Rebuilding Act (1667) stipulated stone/brick buildings. Walls/gates demolished (1760s). Modernized in 19th century (suburbs, bridges, street lighting). By late 19th century, a beautiful city with developed transport/communication. Heavily bombed during WWI (Tower of London, British Museum destroyed). Post-war reconstruction led to tall buildings (Museum Radio Tower), shops, houses, schools, hotels, cultural centers. Water from River Thames. Markets for food/goods. Today controlled by local government (mayors).
• Factors for Growth: Development of transport/communication (roads, railways, underground systems, Heathrow airport, telegraphs, telephones, radio transmissions). Trade (attracted businessmen). Industries (employment, cheap goods). Port facilities (loading/unloading cargo, sailors' journeys, port of call for foreign visitors). Political/administrative center (Roman fort, British colonial secretary based there). Cultural center (museums, theaters).
• Functions: Capital of UK (administrative headquarters), industrial center (heavy/light industries), cultural/recreational center (theaters, museums), international transport/communication hub (airports, harbor), learning center (universities, colleges), commercial center (banks, insurance, shopping), religious center (churches, cathedrals), and Commonwealth headquarters.
• Problems Encountered: Overcrowding (houses, vehicles, people), epidemics (plague in Roman era, 1665), burnt down (1666 AD), unemployment, rural-urban migration of jobless, inadequate housing/poor sanitation, high crime rate, environmental pollution (fumes, noise), WWI bombings (deaths, destruction), and demolition of old city.

Athens:

Growth based on trade/commerce due to rocky land unable to support large population; depended on imported food exchanged for olive oil, wine, wool. Famous learning center (philosophy, architecture, drama, science, medicine). Origin of democracy. Surrounded by protective wall. Clumsy town: narrow earth roads (dusty/muddy), unbaked brick/mud houses, few beautiful buildings (Parthenon temple, temple of Athena Nike). Market place was central meeting/debate area. Acropolis (Fortress) on high cliff provided protection.

• Problems: Inadequate sanitary facilities (bad smell from rotting garbage).
• Decline (430 BC - 335 BC): Constant rivalries/wars with other city-states, conquered by King Philip of Macedonia, constant epidemics (plague weakened military), and final blow was death of Alexander the Great (empire controlled Athens), allowing other towns like Rome/Carthage to rise.

Factors:

• Started as administrative centers for colonial authority, mining towns, commercial centers, agricultural/farming centers, or industrial centers. Europeans established administrative/commercial buildings, attracting rural people for employment, business, and other fortunes.

Examples:

• Nairobi: Began in 1899 during Uganda railway construction as a depot for railway equipment. Suitable site due to mild climate, Nairobi River (water), flat land, and midpoint between Mombasa/Lake Victoria. Capital transferred from Mombasa to Nairobi in 1907 by IBEA company. Europeans/Asians dominated during colonial period; African migration restricted. Associated with racial discrimination. Today: heart of Kenya's rail/road network, modern international airport (Kenyatta International), smaller airports, seat of government, commercial center, industrial, cultural, educational, communication, and transport center. Modern buildings (offices, hotels, shopping), attracts Kenyans/foreign tourists.
• Problems of Nairobi: Inadequate drainage/sanitary facilities, pollution (industries, fumes, noise), acute water problem, inadequate educational facilities, traffic congestion, high crime rate (robbery, prostitution), inadequate housing (slums, overcrowding), and high unemployment.
• Johannesburg: City in Transvaal, South Africa. Mushroomed after large gold deposits discovered in Witwatersrand (September 1886), leading to gold rush. Started with small population, then people flocked from Britain, America, Australia, Europe. Early settlements were shanties of galvanized iron, basis for miraculous growth to ~100,000 people within a decade.
• Factors for Growth: Cheap labor from Africans and neighboring countries (Malawi, Namibia, Botswana) increased population. River Vaal provided water (mining, industry, domestic). Transport/communication development (road, railway). Surrounding land suitable for farming (food for mining/industrial centers). Availability of other minerals (iron ore, flourspar). Availability of coal for energy.
• Current Status: Largest city in South Africa, industrial/commercial center, center of gold mining, site of Johannesburg Stock Exchange. Strategic rail, road, air hub with international airport. Industries: mining/railway equipment, automobile parts, chemicals, textiles, electrical/communication equipment. Cultural/educational center (museums, theaters, symphony, opera, schools, universities).

Factors for Rise:

• Agriculturists (bananas staple food) with fertile soils/suitable climate, able to feed army.
• Strong/competent rulers (Kabaka, e.g., Mtesa I) in 18th/19th centuries.
• Centralized, well-organized political system (effective control, loyalty to one ruler, control/unity of traditional leaders, able rulers strengthened kingdom).
• Strong army and navy (conquered Lake Victoria islands like Sese).
• Decline of Bunyoro Kitara Kingdom created power vacuum.
• Participation in long-distance trade (wealth for kingdom maintenance, taxed Arab/Swahili traders).
• Annexation of Buddu iron fields (manufactured superior iron weapons).
• British occupation handed "lost counties" (Bungaizi, Buyoga) from Bunyoro to Buganda, aiding expansion.

Social Organisation:

Based on clans (related families). Social classes: royal family, local chiefs, commoners, slaves. Kabaka played social roles (presiding over ceremonies/rituals, chief priest). Kabaka's power symbolized by royal regalia (drums, stools, spears). Worshipped god Katonda, believed in ancestral spirits (Lubaale religion). Consulted spirits through prophets/mediums (given gifts). Had medicinemen/sorcerers. Conducted marriage/initiation ceremonies. Christianity/Islam introduced, leading to rivalry.

Economic Organisation:

Located on northern shores of Lake Victoria.

• Cultivators (bananas, millet, sorghum). Kept livestock (cattle, sheep, goats, chickens). Conducted raids for slaves/cattle.
• Fishing (proximity to Lake Victoria) supplemented diet.
• Acquired iron working skills (from Abachwezi), used iron from raids for tools (hoes, spear heads, arrowheads).
• Manufactured bark-cloth, weaved, built canoes (fishing, navy).
• Hunted (buffaloes, antelopes), gathered fruits/roots.
• Local trade (exchange within community/neighbors, e.g., salt).
• Long-distance trade (19th century with Arab/Swahili merchants): main commodities were slaves/ivory (demanded by Arabs/Swahili); Buganda obtained ammunitions, cloth, beads, swords.

Political Organisation:

Centralized kingdom, controlled by Kabaka, initially limited by clan heads (Bataka). Later, Kabakas assumed more power.

• Kabaka's Roles: Chief political/religious leader, head of government. Supreme judge, final court of appeal. Defender of Buganda, protector of subjects. Commanded army and juniors (Katikiros, Saza/Gombolora chiefs). Appointed/fired senior officials (Katikiro, Chief Justice). Controlled trade, taxed foreign traders.
• Administration: Assisted by Prime Minister (Katikiro). Chief Justice (Omulamuzi) and Treasurer (Omuwanika) formed Kabaka's advisory body. Legislature Assembly (Lukiko) discussed kingdom issues (attacks, foreign relations, trade, citizens' affairs). Kingdom split into counties (Saza) led by Saza chiefs. Saza split into sub-counties (Gombolola) led by Gombolora chiefs (collected taxes, maintained law/order). Gombolola split into Miluka (headed by Miluka chief).
• Strong standing army and navy (defended kingdom, controlled Lake Victoria possessions).
• Leadership hereditary at first, later Kabaka could appoint loyal commoners.
• Kabaka strengthened loyalty by marrying from all popular clans and accepting sons of prominent people into his court.

Social Organisation:

Worshipped all-powerful god Mwari. Priests presided over religious functions (sacrifices), conducted rituals. Rozwi clan provided priests. Worship in shrines. Believed in ancestral spirits: clan spirit (Mhondoro), family spirits (Vadzimu). Spirits communicated through intermediaries (Svikiro). Conducted ceremonies/festivals. Socially organized into families, then clans. Clan elders highly respected. Polygamy common (ensured warriors, labor).

Economic Organisation:

Grew subsistence crops (beans, millets, vegetables). Kept livestock (cattle, sheep, goats) for milk/meat. Made iron tools (spears, hoes, knives). Weaved, made bark cloth. Supplied gold to Sofala, in return obtained cloth, glassware, firearms from Portuguese.

Political Organisation:

Controlled by an Emperor (head of state/government). Leadership hereditary.

• Administration: Assisted by immediate relatives and leading officials (queen's mother, principal wives, sister, head drummer, chancellor, supreme cook, chief door keeper, army commander).
• Emperor was overall military leader, commander-in-chief of standing army (defended/expanded kingdom).
• Kingdom divided into smaller divisions under lesser kings (answerable to emperor). Lesser kings promoted trade. Emperor sole controller of trade; profit maintained army/kingdom. Vassal states paid tribute.
• Priests played political roles: emperor's spies, linked people to emperor (religion used for political unity).

Factors for Rise and Expansion:

• Abundant rainfall (sustained population, crops, wild fruits).
• Golden Stool (introduced by Osei Tutu and Akwamu priest Okomfo Anokye) cemented union, had religious symbolism, united states politically/socially.
• Income from trade with Europeans at coast.
• Odwira Festival (state rulers paid allegiance to Asantehene).
• Strong/able rulers (Osei Tutu, Opoku Ware, Osei Bonsu) engaged in expansionist missions.
• Highly centralized kingdom (people united against common enemy).
• Neighboring states (Denkyira, Fante) were weaker.
• Strong, well-organized army from all Asante states.
• Used modern weapons (guns from Europeans).
• Revenue from tribute paid by conquered states (maintained army/kingdom).

Social Organisation:

Early clans/family groups united into states. Golden Stool symbolized unity (political/social). Odwira Festival united the Asante, ensuring loyalty to Asantehene. Polytheistic (worshipped gods/goddesses). Asantehene played political/religious roles. Worshipped gods through ancestors (intermediaries). Sacrificed to gods, believed in afterlife, punishment/reward. Embraced Islam by first half of 19th century (adopted Islamic culture/Sharia law).

Economic Organisation:

Lived in forest region west of River Volta, heavy rainfall enabled crops (vegetables, kolanuts, grains). Kept few livestock. Hunted, gathered fruits/red kolanuts. Local trade with Ga, Benin (salt, cloth, fish). Traded with Europeans on West African coast (Accra, Anomabo, Cape Coast, Winneba, Elmina). Asante traded ivory, slaves, gold, colanuts for firearms, cloth, ironware. Mined gold, practiced iron working (tools, bangles, hoes, arrowheads). Traditional crafts: cloth making, basketry, pottery, sculpture. Hunted elephants for ivory, gathered fruits/roots.

Political Organisation:

Centralized Empire, divided into three parts:

• Metropolitan/Nucleus State: Kumasi State, directly under Asantehene.
• Amatoo: States within 30-40 miles of Kumasi, recognized Golden Stool (e.g., Dwaben, Adansi, Bekwai, Nsuta, Mampon, Kokofu). Conquered states administered by their kings but had Asantehene's representative (levied taxes, supervised trade/gold mining). Each Asante State under Omanhene (oath of allegiance to Asantehene), paid tribute, provided soldiers.
• Unity: Golden Stool (symbol of unity) preserved in Kumasi. Symbolic black stools presented to state rulers. National festival (Odwira) for state rulers to pay allegiance.
• Army: Strong standing army (infantry, cavalry), divided into four segments (left wing, right wing, van, rear); state kings held positions within wings.

Decline:

Government collapsed due to: constant rebellions by vassal states, British support for Fante against Asante, kingdom grown too large to control effectively, strained relations with Fante/British affecting trade, weakness in provincial administration (vassal states not fully incorporated), Asantehene Osei Tutu forced to grant independence to southern states, and Asantehene Prempe I exiled.

Must clearly define government structure, functions, a formal document (e.g., Kenya, USA, France).

• Characteristics: Written in an official volume, rigid (not easy to alter, slow/cumbersome amendment procedure), simple/clear/consistent (drafted by experts), clearly sets powers of judiciary/executive/legislature, spells out fundamental rights/freedoms (approved by legislature), some rules found in traditions/conventions/customs, allows comparison of government actions with expected conduct.

Unwritten Constitutions:

Does not exist in a single formal official document (e.g., Britain).

• Sources: Act of Parliament, British conventions, Hansard, legal publications, decisions by British law courts, Royal prerogatives of King/Queen.

Methods:

• By Parliament (65% vote for change)
• Constitutional Review Commission (set by President/Parliament)
• Constitutional conference (selected people, draft, referendum)
• National Convention (representatives, discuss issues, prepare constitution)

Kenya's Process:

1. Public civic education (understand constitution, strengths/shortcomings). Commission visits constituencies to record public views. Majority views used for draft constitution.
2. Recommendations published/circulated; commission revisits public for remarks (covering all provinces to reflect people's will).
3. National constitutional conference (delegates from each district) discusses/scrutinizes recommendations; may accept, reject, or amend.
4. If no consensus, disagreements referred back to public via referendum (organized by Constitution of Kenya Review Commission within two months).
5. Draft forwarded to National Assembly by Attorney General, treated as bill, published for discussion. Once recommended by MPs and assented by President.
6. Finally, published in Kenya Gazette, then implementation begins.

• Democratic: Based on separation of powers (Judiciary, Legislature, Executive) to reduce conflicts; arms work independently.
• Supremacy of the Constitution and Rule of Law: Supreme law binding all authorities/individuals. Rule of law emphasizes handling legal matters according to Kenyan laws; innocent until proven guilty, right.
• 1966: Two houses of parliament (Senate, House of Representatives) abolished, replaced with single National Assembly.
• 1966: Member resigning from sponsoring party required fresh mandate. Member missing 8 consecutive sittings or serving >6 months prison lost seat.
• 1966: Constitutional amendment required 2/3 majority of MPs.
• 1966: Public Security Act allowed detention without trial (danger to state security).
• 1966: If Presidency vacant, Vice-President took over for remaining term. President given power to nominate 12 MPs.
• 1968: President empowered to change administrative boundaries (Parliament lost control).
• 1968: Voting age lowered from 21 to 18 years. Presidency contest age lowered from 40+ to 35 years.
• 1968: Presidential election by direct popular vote.
• 1982: Kenya changed from de-facto to de jure one-party state via 'Section 2A' (KANU only legal party).
• 1982: Security of tenure for Attorney General and Controller Audit General established.
• 1982: Office of Chief Secretary and Head of Civil Service established.
• 1987: Post of Chief Secretary abolished, replaced by Secretary to Cabinet (due to excessive power).
• 1987: President empowered to dismiss Attorney General and Controller and Audit General at will.
• 1988: President empowered to dismiss High Court judges and Public Service Commission chairman at will.
• 1988: Police department could hold suspected criminals for max 14 days before court.
• 1990: Tenure of Attorney General, PSC Chairman, and Controller and Audit General guaranteed.
• 1990: Presidency limited to 2 five-year terms. President needed 25%.

• Room for consent (directly or via representatives).
• Emphasizes equality (equal opportunities).
• Gives people freedom to organize and enjoy rights.

Direct Democracy (Pure Democracy):

People participate directly in all decision-making. Common among Bushmen of South Africa, Greek city-states. Cannot work in large populations; succeeds in communities with few people where every opinion matters. Principles applied in Kenya for constitutional review (referendum for disagreements).

Indirect Democracy (Representative Democracy):

People do not participate directly; elect representatives who express their views. Practical in large modern states.

• Types of Representative Democracy:
  • Parliamentary Democracy: People elect representatives, who then choose a Prime Minister. PM appoints ministers from MPs (forming cabinet). PM equally without discrimination (gender, race, ethnicity, religion, politics, color, disability, social status).

2. People's Participation in Governance: People involved in decision-making. Can participate by voting, contesting posts, or being members of NGOs/associations that monitor government activities.
3. Economic Liberty: Citizens have freedom of action, choice, decision in economic matters. Achieved through privatization, markets for goods, allowing individuals to genuinely attain/control wealth.
4. Respect for and Protection of Human Rights: Essential for democracy, promoting human life/dignity, social justice, and potential of human beings.
5. Need to Conduct Free and Fair Elections: Held regularly (e.g., every 5 years in Kenya). Should avoid corruption, intimidation, rigging.
6. Respect of Other People's Opinions: Political opponents' opinions should not be dismissed, can help government adjust actions.
7. Bill of Rights: Every democratic country should have one, containing rights/freedoms of citizens and limitations.
8. Equal Status of All People (Citizens): No discrimination based on color, race, gender, political position, ethnic group. Equal before law, provided equal opportunities/privileges.
9. Transparency and Accountability: Government operates openly, citizens aware of actions/intentions. High degree of openness, listens to citizens' views. Achieved through meetings with authorities, mass media/print media advertisements.
10. Application of Democratic Principles: Such as liberty and social justice. Human being is entitled to. Things an individual is allowed to do/have by law, regardless of race, religion, political opinion, creed, sex, language, place of origin, age, tribe, color. In Kenya, freedom of speech, religion, association, movement, right to life, property, personal liberty are guaranteed. Rights needed to live a human life, not given by governments. Enjoyment of rights must follow law and not interfere with others' rights or government/society functioning. Rights in Chapter five of constitution.

• Affect all people in the world; every human being has right to fundamental human rights.
• Limitations: People sometimes abuse rights, so law limits some rights/freedoms.
• Interdependent: Enjoying one right may depend on having another (e.g., speech requires association; liberty/movement require security).
• Suspension in War: Certain provisions/guarantees individual rights and circumstances for denial. Kenya's Bill of Rights derived from International Bill of Rights (International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights).
• Provisions of International Bill of Rights:
  • Right to self-determination.
  • Equal rights for men/women in civil/political rights.
  • Freedom of association.
  • No arbitrary interference with family/privacy.
  • All equal before the law, no person above law, non-discriminatory application.
  • Freedom of conscience/religion.
  • No inhuman treatment/torture.
  • Right to liberty.
  • Freedom of movement within a state for lawful residents.
  • Right to life (protected by law).
  • No enslavement (right to freedom).
  • Right to be recognized as a person before the law.
  • Freedom to.
  • Did not protect persons with disabilities against discrimination.
  • Provisions for suspending rights were very wide.
  • Marginalized communities not well protected.
  • Did not mention socio-economic/cultural rights, development rights, or right to clean environment.
  • Some laws allowed discrimination (e.g., Section 91: Kenyan father's child with foreign woman automatically citizen, but not Kenyan woman's child with foreigner).

Some Human Rights in Universal Declaration:

• No arbitrary detention/arrest/exile
• No enslavement
• Born free/equal
• Right to life/liberty
• Freedom of association/assembly
• Presumed innocent until proven guilty
• Right to own property (with compensation if taken)
• Right to fair hearing by impartial court
• Freedom of movement within one's country
• Right to seek refuge
• Freedom of expression (speech)
• Right to nationality (can change)
• Equal before law
• Right to marry/start family regardless of nationality/religion/color/race
• Right to participate in public affairs

Importance of Universal Declaration:

• Provides international standard to judge governments on human rights
• Can lead to international accusation/sanctions
• Encourages regional blocs to introduce/protect human rights
• Right to education: Parents ensure basic primary education (now free), government provides bursaries for secondary.
• Protection from exploitation: Regulations against child labor (moral, physical, mental harm).
• Protection from discrimination: Against discrimination based on color, race, religion, sex.
• Right to good medical care: Parents/government provide care (vaccination, specialists).
• Right to religious guidance: Parents guide children in religious practice.
• Protection from sexual abuse: Against rape, exchange of money for sex.
• Right to basic requirements: Food, shelter, clothing from parents. Government provides food during famine if parents cannot.
• Right to adoption: Government has guidelines.
• Right to play: For discovery, mental settling, socialization.

Classification of Human Rights:

• Political and Civil Rights (Civil Rights/Fundamental Rights): Enable individuals to follow values love, association, protection from discrimination/sexual abuse/drugs/disaster.
• Economic Rights: Provide economic freedom, participation in economic activities without harassment. Right to own/use property, work/livelihood, freedom from forced labor/slavery. Examples: right to form/become trade union member, own property, work/fair judgment, start/operate business, form/join trade union.
• Developmental and Group Rights: Help people have better life (e.g., clean).